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IN  MEAXOmAJA 
John  3wett 


-*  nj CA 


THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES 


BROUGHT  BACK  TO  ITS  TRUE  PRINCIPLES, 


ART  OF  THINKING  IN  A  FOREIGN 
LANGUAGE. 


BY 

C.  HABCEL,  Knt.  Leg.  Ho*., 

AUTHOR    OP     "LANGUAGE    AS    A    MEANS    OF    MENTAL    CULTURE,"    ETC. 
"PREMIERS  PRINCIPE3  ©'EDUCATION,"  ETC.,   ETC. 


"  La  nature  a  fait  ce  systeme  elle-meme ; 
elle  pouvait  seule  le  faire." 

Conwllac. 

M  Lea  methodes  Bont  les  mattrea  des  maitres." 

Talleyrand. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.   APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549  &  551  BROADWAY. 

1873. 


Ektered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S69,  by 

D.  APFLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Conrt  of  the  United  States  for  the 

Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ssycATioN  dept: 


NOTE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


The  great  want  of  an  American  in  travelling 
abroad  is  not  so  much  the  ability  to  speak  the 
language  of  the  country  which  he  may  visit,  as 
to  understand  it  when  spoken  by  the  natives.  He 
may  fancy  that  his  knowledge  of  the  written  lan- 
guage will  stand  him  in  good  stead  for  purposes 
of  business  or  social  intercourse,  but  his  first  at- 
tempt at  practical  conversation  will  undeceive 
him.  He  may  manage  to  express  himself  in  de- 
cent French  or  German,  but  the  responses  of  his 
interlocutor  will  be  as  unintelligible  as  Sanscrit  or 
Choctaw.  He  has  learned  the  language  by  the 
eye,  but  not  by  the  ear.  The  same  words  which 
he  reads  and  translates  at  sight  fail  to  be  recog- 
nized when  they  fall  from  the  lips.     He  finds  that 

541755 


IV «   ,•«««;  NOTE  .TO  'T.IIE   AMERICAN   EDITION. 

his  liabit  of  reading  gives  him  no  power  to  under- 
stand talking.  Even  the  most  familiar  phrases 
address  his  eye  and  ear  so  differently,  that  they 
have  a  strange  and  unmeaning  sound  when  spo- 
ken. Of  the  American  travellers  who  crowd  the 
foreign  capitals  at  all  seasons,  few  have  sufficient 
mastery  of  the  European  languages  to  be  able  to 
carry  on  a  connected  conversation,  though  they 
have  no  trouble  in  understanding  the  language  of 
books.  One  may  be  well  grounded  in  the  litera- 
ture of  a  language,  reading  the  works  of  its  au- 
thors with  as  great  ease  as  he  does  his  own  ver- 
nacular, and  still,  on  attempting  to  converse  with 
a  native,  will  find  himself  as  helpless  as  a  child. 
The  fault  is  not  in  his  knowledge,  but  in  his  ear. 
He  may  even  be  able  to  speak  with  a  certain  rash 
fluency,  but  he  breaks  down  in  trying  to  under- 
stand what  is  said  to  him.  The  sound  of  the 
words  with  which  his  eye  is  familiar  conveys  no 
sense  to  his  ear.  In  a  great  majority  of  cases 
this  is  the  cause  of  the  inability  of  a  stranger, 
who  has  studied  a  foreign  language  in  books,  to 
apply  it  to  practical  use.     The  perusal  of  a  thou- 


NOTE  TO   THE  AMERICA^    EDITION.       ,  ,,  ,   ,-V. 

sand  volumes  would  not  enable  the  student  to  un- 
derstand a  single  word  of  the  spoken  language. 
In  the  brief  essay  now  offered  to  the  public,  of 
which  a  French  edition  was  published  in  1867,  a 
method  of  learning  foreign  languages  is  proposed, 
which  affords  an  effectual  remedy  for  the  evil  re- 
ferred to.  The  author  is  a  French  scholar  of  rare 
philosophical  culture  and  linguistic  accomplish- 
ments, who  for  many  years  has  pursued  the 
method  in  his  own  studies  which  he  recommends 
to  his  readers.  His  success  is  brilliantly  illus- 
trated by  the  vigor  and  idiomatic  purity  which 
mark  the  composition  of  this  volume.  He  handles 
the  English  language  with  the  force  and  precision 
of  a  native  writer,  and  often  awakens  an  interest 
in  his  ideas  by  the  simple  beauty  of  his  style. 
His  little  work  is  not  a  manual,  but  a  method. 
Though  devoted  to  the  study  of  language  as  a 
subject  of  philosophical  investigation,  he  has  never 
been  a  teacher.  His  method  is  equally  applicable 
to  the  different  systems  on  which  text-books  have 
been  written.  Its  principal  features  may  be  de- 
scribed in  a  concise  summary  as  follows :  1.  Every 


VI  ;       .  •  •  ;  KOTJE  ,«T0'  THE  AMERICAN   EDITION. 

!  .*  •  *.  • . «' 

exercise  leads  to  the  power  of  thinking  in  the  lan- 
guage. 2.  Nature  is  followed,  step  by  step,  through 
the  study.  3.  Curiosity  and  imitation  are  the 
sources  of  progress.  4.  Grammar  is  learned 
through  the  language.  5.  Every  exercise  is  in 
itself  a  lesson  in  the  practice  of  the  language. 
6.  Exercises  in  translating  into  the  foreign  lan- 
guage are  not  demanded  of  the  beginner.  7. 
The  phraseology  is  known  before  the  words. 
8.  No  lesson  is  learned  by  rote.  9.  Pronun- 
ciation is  learned  through  the  ear  alone.  10. 
The  language,  when  spoken  however  fast,  is  per- 
fectly understood.  11.  All  the  exercises  provide 
against  the  commission  of  errors.  12.  An  in- 
structor is  required  only  for  the  pronunciation. 

In  the  application  of  this  method  the  ear  i? 
trained  before  the  pupil  attempts  to  speak,  fol- 
lowing the  wonderful  process  of  nature,  by  which 
the  infant  goes  through  a  varied  course  of  auricu- 
lar exercises,  before  the  tongue  is  called  into  ac- 
tion. The  ultimate  aim  is  to  give  a  complete 
command  of  the  language,  whether  spoken  or 
written,  without  the  medium   of  a  translation. 


NOTE  TO   THE  AMERICAN   EDITION.  Til 

Every  one  who  learns  a  foreign  language,  accord- 
ing to  this  method,  will  be  able  to  apply  its  re- 
sources, both  for  thought  and  speech,  with  the  cer- 
tainty, if  not  the  facility,  of  his  native  tongue. 
In  his  travels  abroad,  he  can  join  in  social  inter- 
course with  ease  and  pleasure,  instead  of  being 
tied  down  to  the  lifeless  routine  of  the  written 
language.  Without  this  faculty,  though  he  may 
have  turned  night  into  day  in  the  study  of  the 
national  literature,  it  will  still  be  true  of  him,  that 
"  he  who  travelleth  into  a  country  before  he  hath 
some  entrance  into  the  language,  goeth  to  school, 
and  not  to  travel." 


PREFACE 


Civilization  is  the  offspring  of  the  social  senti- 
ment :  men  of  all  countries,  impelled  by  an  instinct 
of  perfectibility,  come  daily  into  closer  contact, 
desirous  of  communicating,  of  assimilating  with 
each  other  in  social  intercourse.  The  old  barriers 
which  ignorance  and  national  prejudice  had  raised 
between  them  are  now  crumbling  in  every  direc- 
tion before  the  irresistible  power  of  that  instinct. 

International  exchange  of  ideas  is  the  great 
want  of  the  age.  "With  a  view  to  supplying  this 
want,  we  have  endeavored  to  render  the  knowl- 
edge of  foreign  living  languages  accessible  to 
every  one  by  taking  for  our  guide  the  natural 
method  by  which  all  so  infalliby  acquire  the 
native  tongue.     Our  system  is  formed  of  what  is 


X  PREFACE. 

conformable  to  reason  and  sanctioned  by  experi- 
ence in  the  labors  of  our  predecessors.  It  will  be 
found  consistent  with  the  working  of  the  mind, 
the  nature  of  language,  and  the  requirements  of 
modern  society. 

The  present  diversity  of  methods  in  this  branch 
of  instruction  sufficiently  proves  that  they  are  not 
founded  on  sound,  universal  principles :  they  are 
partial  and  exclusive.  There  is  something  true  in 
each,  but  none  contain  the  whole  truth :  this  re- 
mains to  be  discovered.  Tor  our  own  part,  we 
shall  rest  satisfied  if  we  throw  some  light  on  the 
subject,  and  if,  by  taking  a  few  steps  toward  its 
amelioration,  we  prepare  the  way  for  its  future 
perfection. 

This  attempt  of  one  not  a  teacher  may  be 
deemed  presumptuous:  the  only  excuse  we  can 
offer  is  our  wish  to  be  useful ;  and  we  doubt  not 
we  shall  be  so,  especially  to  those  of  our  readers 
who  are  ambitious  to  know  a  foreign  language 
practically,  and  to  those  who,  unbiassed  by  any 
previous  routine,  are  entering  upon  the  career  of 
instruction. 


PREFACE.  XI 

Special  directions  are  given  for  the  acquisition 
of  ancient  and  modern  languages,  whether  the 
learner  be  a  child  or  an  adult,  a  beginner  or  a 
proficient,  whether  he  learns  with  or  without  a 
teacher,  in  private  or  in  a  class ;  while  the  classi- 
fication of  the  subject  will  permit  every  person  to 
direct  his  attention  to  the  object  best  suited  to  his 
wants. 

The  highest  ability  in  the  various  departments 
of  the  language  is  insisted  upon.  Perfection,  it 
is  true,  is  unattainable;  but  the  purport  of  a 
method,  as  the  duty  of  an  instructor,  is  to  keep 
it  always  in  perspective  before  young  people,  and 
to  lead  them  toward  it,  as  far  as  circumstances 
permit. 

The  present  volume  is  a  brief  summary  of  a 
larger  work,  in  which  all  our  views  on  linguistic 
studies  are  unfolded  at  full  length.* 

CM. 

Paris,  December,  1868. 

*  "  Language  as  a  Means  of  Mental  Culture  and  International 
Communication."   2  vols.,  8vo.   London :  Chapman  &  Hall.    1853. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAT.  PAGE 

I.  SUBDIVISION  AND  ORDER  OF  STUDY  .        .  9 

II.  THE  ART  OF  READING                 ....  36 

III.  THE  ART  OF  HEARING 78 

IV.  THE  ART  OF  SPEAKING 104 

V.  THE  ART  OF  WRITING 142 

VI.  ON  MENTAL  CULTURE 167 

VII.  ON  ROUTINE      .        .        .        .        .        .        .  197 


THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES, 

BROUG1IT  RACK  TO  ITS   TRUE  PRINCIPLES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SUBDIVISION   AND   ORDER   OF    STUDY. 

"The  order  which  a  good  classification  introduces  into  our  studies, 
throws  light  on  them,  and  insures  their  rapid  progress." 

Before  unfolding  the  method  which  is  the 
subject  of  this  essay,  we  will  briefly  indicate  the 
objects  which  it  embraces,  and  the  principles  on 
which  it  rests.  Classification  is  the  basis  of  a 
rational  method. 

Man,  born  with  a  social  nature,  is  endowed 
with  the  means  of  entering  into  communion  with 
his  fellow-creatures.  His  looks,  smiles,  laughter, 
tears,  cries,  sighs,  gestures,  all  the  changes  of  his 
countenance,  all  the  intonations  of  his  voice,  all 
muscular  actions,  the  immediate  consequence  of 
impressions  received,  are  the  natural  signs  which 
manifest  externally  his  emotions,  his  sentiments. 


10  (      /HIE.  STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

They  constitute  the  language  of  action.  Through 
these  signs,  men  of  all  countries  can  communicate 
with  each  other,  and  the  young  child  is  able  to 
understand  those  who  address  him. 

Expressive,  however,  as  this  language  of 
nature  is,  it  was  found  inadequate  for  all  the 
wants  of  active  and  social  life  in  an  advanced 
state  of  civilization.  Its  deficiencies  and  the  in- 
creasing demand  for  intellectual  communication 
soon  led  to  articulate  language^  which,  although 
arising  from  the  spontaneous  action  of  our  facul- 
ties, is  of  human  institution  and  composed  of 
conventional  signs. 

In  process  of  time  and  with  the  further  prog- 
ress of  civilization,  articulate  language  became 
insufficient,  as  it  exercised  its  power  in  narrow 
limits  of  time  and  place,  and  written  language 
was  invented.  "With  speech  alone,  nations,  prov- 
inces, towns  would  have  remained  isolated ;  gen- 
erations would  have  succeeded  generations  with- 
out deriving  benefit  from  their  experience ;  in  a 
word,  mankind  would  have  remained  in  a  com- 
parative state  of  ignorance. 

The  conventional  signs  of  our  ideas  are  then 
of  two  sorts — spoken  and  written  words. 

Spoken  words  are  composed  of  two  elements 


SUBDIVISION    AND    ORDER    OF    STUDY.  11 

— vocal  sounds  and  vocal  articulations.  The 
combination  of  the  two  forms  the  articulate 
sound. 

Written  words  are  likewise  composed  of  two 
elements  corresponding  to  those  of  the  spoken 
words ;  they  are  the  vowels  and  consonants,  which 
represent  respectively  the  sounds  and  articula- 
tions. 

Such  is  the  double  system  of  signs,  the  knowl- 
edge of  which  is  required  for  the  exchange  of 
ideas. 

In  the  study  of  a  living  language,  four  ends 
are  to  be  attained,  that  is,  four  different  arts, 
which  we  give  here  in  the  order  of  their  acqui- 
sition in  the  mother  tongue : 

1.  To  understand  the  spoken  language. 

2.  To  speak. 

3.  To  understand  the  written  language. 

4.  To  write. 

The  first  two  arts,  constitute  the  spoken  lan- 
guage /  the  other  two,  the  written  language.  The 
former  is  acquired  naturally,  the  latter  must  be 
taught. 

The  language  of  action  which  accompanies 
the  first  words  addressed  to  a  child,  interprets 
their  meaning,  and  intuitively  fixes  the  idea  in 


12  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

his  mind ;  thus,  under  the  impulse  of  nature  alone, 
he  directly  associates  ideas  with  the  phraseology 
which  strikes  his  ear,  without  even  suspecting 
that  it  is  composed  of  words.  By  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  the  Creator,  which  compels  him  to  be 
mute  at  his  entrance  into  life,  the  child,  prompt- 
ed by  curiosity,  silently  exercises  his  perceptive 
powers  and  listens  to  all  around  him.  When  his 
organ  of  hearing  is  completely  familiarized  with 
the  articulate  sounds  to  which  he  attaches  ideas, 
he  instinctively  reproduces  these  sounds,  in  order 
to  express  his  desires,  his  wants,  his  thoughts. 
Here  spontaneity  ceases.  If  we  wish  him  to 
know  how  to  read  and  write,  he  must  be  taught. 

To  possess  these  four  objects,  is  to  be  able  to 
use  the  spoken  and  the  written  words,  for  either 
receiving  or  communicating  ideas.  This  ex- 
change of  thought  is  efficient  only  when  words 
exist  in  the  mind  as  direct  representatives  of 
ideas,  when,  alternately  cause  and  effect,  they 
spontaneously  suggest  each  other:  in  other 
words,  when  we  think  in  the  language.  The 
child  thinks  with  the  very  first  words  which  he 
stammers. 

There  are  four  ways  of  thinking  in  a  lan- 
guage, corresponding  to  the  four  ways  of  practis- 


SUBDIVISION   AND   ORDER   OF   STUDY.  13 

ing  it.  They  are  the  four  objects  to  be  attained 
in  succession,  and  so  far  distinct,  that  the  posses- 
sion of  one  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  posses- 
sion of  the  others.  They  are  manifested  by  the 
action  of  different  organs,  and  supply  different 
social  wants.  Completely  dissimilar  in  the  end 
proposed  and  in  actual  practice,  although  con- 
nected by  close  affinities,  these  objects  require  for 
their  attainment  special  exercises,  in  conformity 
with  the  process  of  nature,  and  in  such  an  order 
that  each  may  be  a  preparation  for  that  which  is 
to  follow.  As  they  are  successively  rendered 
habitual  by  practice,  the  spontaneity  with  which 
every  one  of  them  is  exercised,  leaves  all  the 
powers  of  the  mind  free  to  make  the  other  acqui- 
sitions, without  neglecting  those  which  precede. 
Thus,  by  dividing  the  difficulties,  we  are  enabled 
to  surmount  them.  One  thing  at  a  time,  and 
every  thing  in  its  time :  these  are  the  prescrip- 
tions of  nature  and  reason. 

The  order  to  be  followed  in  the  pursuit  of 
these  acquisitions  is  indicated  by  the  degree  of 
importance  belonging  to  each,  and  the  subser- 
viency of  some  to  the  others.  Ideas  are  not  in- 
nate ;  they  must  be  received  before  they  can  be 
communicated ;   this  is  so  true,  that  native  civ 


14  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

riosity  impels  us  to  listen  long  before  we  can 
speak. 

A  child  instinctively  follows  this  order;  he 
does  not  waste  his  mental  activity  on  vain  the- 
ories; he  goes  straight  to  the  phraseology;  he 
listens  and  understands ;  he  imitates  and  speaks. 

It  is  only  when  the  articulate  sounds  spon- 
taneously awaken  in  his  young  intelligence  the 
ideas  of  which  they  are  the  signs,  that  he  tries  to 
reproduce  them  as  he  has  heard  them.  He  owes 
his  progress  to  example,  not  to  precepts  ;  to  prac- 
tice, not  to  theory. 

This  is  analysis,  the  method  of  nature  :  based 
on  example  and  practice,  it  proceeds,  by  induc- 
tion, from  the  perceptions  to  their  signs,  from  the 
whole  to  its  parts,  from  the  phraseology  to  the 
words,  from  the  forms  of  language  to  the  laws 
that  govern  them. 

It  is  under  the  impulse  of  these  instincts  of 
nature  that  we  infallibly  acquire  the  language  of 
our  parents.  The  same  process,  applied  to  any 
other  language,  must  produce  the  same  result; 
and  success  will  be  the  more  certain,  as  we  follow 
more  closely  in  the  steps  of  nature. 

The  articulate  and  the  written  signs  being 
conventional,  a  familiarity  with  the  import  at- 


SUBDIVISION   AND   OEDEK   OF   STUDY.  15 

taclied  to  them  must  be  gained  before  they  can 
be  properly  applied  to  the  expression  of  thought. 
It  is  only  after  ideas  have  been  conveyed  to  our 
minds  by  means  of  their  signs,  that  we  can,  by 
imitation,  use  these  very  signs  to  express  the 
same  or  similar  ideas.  Impression  of  language, 
which  is  effected  through  hearing  and  reading, 
must  therefore  precede  expression,  which  is 
effected  by  speaking  and  writing.  In  other 
words,  the  twofold  talent  of  understanding  the 
written  and  the  spoken  language,  respectively 
leads  to  the  arts  of  writing  and  speaking,  as  is 
the  case  in  the  native  language.  It  is  by 
judicious  exercises  of  imitation,  founded  on  the 
possession  of  this  double  talent,  that  a  student 
will  easily  acquire  the  two  arts  dependent  there- 
on. The  repetition  of  the  impressions  received 
by  the  eye  and  the  ear,  fixes  the  materials  of  dis- 
course in  the  mind.  Impression  and  expression 
mark  the  principal  subdivision  and  the  order  of 
linguistic  studies. 

A  young  child  receives  his  first  notions  of  the 
national  idiom  from  those  who  speak  to  him ;  an 
adolescent  or  an  adult  who  learns  a  foreign  Ian- 
guage,  which  he  does  not  hear  habitually  spoken, 
is  unable  to  follow  the  identical  process  of  nature, 


16  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

and  adopts  one  perfectly  analogous,  which  reason 
prescribes :  he  has  recourse  to  books,  as  a  means 
of  initiation  in  that  language.  To  read  a  book  is 
to  listen  to  its  author;  it  is  learning  a  language 
by  practice  and  imitation,  no  less  than  is  done  by 
a  child  who  hears  it  spoken.  There  is  a  complete 
analogy  between  these  two  modes  of  proceeding ; 
translation  interprets  the  foreign  idiom,  as  the 
language  of  action  interprets  the  national  idiom. 

Books,  as  models  of  expression,  are  preferable 
to  conversation.  They  exhibit  more  especially 
the  right  usage,  the  only  guide  for  speaking  and 
writing  in  conformity  with  the  genius  of  a  lan- 
guage. Not  only  do  they  present  a  richer  stock 
of  words,  and  a  style  generally  more  correct  and 
less  trivial  than  that  of  conversation,  but  the  im- 
pressions made  through  the  organ  of  sight  are 
more  vivid  and  more  lasting  than  those  which  are 
made  through  the  organ  of  hearing ;  for  the  at- 
tention is  more  fully  commanded  by  the  eye 
than  by  the  ear.  This  observation  applies  to  the 
form  of  language,  not  to  the  thought,  which,  by 
the  force  of  sympathy,  receives  from  the  living 
voice  and  the  looks  of  the  speaker  a  power  of  im- 
pressiveness,  of  which  the  inert  page  is  altogether 
destitute. 


SUBDIVISION   AND   ORDER   OF   STUDY.  17 

Reading,  as  an  initiation  to  the  knowledge  of 
a  language,  has  a  decided  advantage  over  hear 
ing*  "We  have  a  greater  command  over  what 
we  read  than  over  what  we  hear.  In  reading  we 
can  pause  at  will,  and  direct  attention  to  the 
passages  wThich  require  investigation ;  we  can 
compare  what  strikes  us  at  the  moment,  with 
what  precedes,  and  thus  the  whole  is  better  con- 
nected in  the  mind  and  more  thoroughly  under- 
stood. 

In  listening,  on  the  contrary,  the  slowness  of 
our  conception,  or  the  volubility  of  the  speaker, 
does  not  always  permit  us  to  follow  him.  We 
have  not  time  to  dwell  on  the  words  or  phrases 
which  call  for  explanation,  and  much  less  can  we 

*  The  word  tearing  commonly  means  the  act  of  the  ear  which 
perceives  sounds ;  but  we  attach  to  it  the  idea  of  compre- 
hending the  spoken  language.  The  division  of  our  subject  and 
the  absence  of  a  special  term,  justify  the  second  application  given 
here  to  this  word,  by  analogy  with  those  which  designate  the 
three  other  arts.  Speaking,  its  counterpart,  signifies  the  act  both 
of  uttering  articulate  sounds  and  expressing  ideas.  Reading 
means  both  to  pronounce  the  written  words  and  conceive  the 
ideas  conveyed  by  them.  Writing  applies  equally  to  the  manual 
art  of  penmanship  and  to  the  expression  of  thought.  The  mental 
operation  expressed  by  the  second  acceptation  of  these  words  is 
the  meaning  attached  to  them  throughout  this  essay. 


18  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

trace  back  our  steps,  in  order  to  compare  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  subject  and  judge  of  the 
whole.  The  rapidity  with  which  most  people 
utter  their  words  in  ordinary  conversation,  re- 
quires them  to  be  frequently  repeated  in  order  to 
be  retained,  whereas,  by  dwelling  as  long  as  we 
please  on  written  words,  we  always  have  it  in  our 
power  to  make  sure  of  them  as  we  proceed  in 
reading.  The  progress  made  in  learning  a  lan- 
guage must  be  at  once  more  certain  and  more 
rapid  by  reading  than  by  hearing. 

In  the  mother  tongue  a  child  naturally  ac- 
quires the  pronunciation  subsequently  to  the 
meaning  of  words,  and  remains  ignorant  of  the 
written  signs,  which  he  is  afterward  taught  by  a 
special  process,  based  on  his  knowledge  of  the 
articulate  words ;  he  passes  from  the  ideas  to  the 
sounds,  and  from  the  sounds  to  the  letters.  The 
spoken  language,  the  direct  sign  of  his  ideas, 
gives  him  the  key  to  the  written  language. 

In  the  same  manner,  but  in  an  inverse  order, 
he  who  learns  a  language  from  books  becomes  ac- 
quainted, in  the  first  instance,  with  the  written 
expression,  which  is  for  him,  as  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  the  direct  sign  of  thought,  and  will  after- 
ward, by  ear-practice,  learn  the  pronunciation  cor- 


SUBDIVISION  AND   OEDEK   OF   STUDY.  19 

responding  to  the  written  words  with  which  he  is 
familiar.  The  more  perfect  his  comprehension 
of  the  written  language,  the  more  rapid  will  be 
his  progress  in  the  spoken  language. 

When  words  have  been  long  observed  in 
books,  and  heard  from  the  teacher's  lips,  asso- 
ciated with  the  ideas  they  represent,  no  difficulty 
will  be  experienced  in  reproducing  their  orthog- 
raphy and  pronunciation,  the  preliminary  ac- 
quisitions for  writing  and  speaking.  The  first 
two  arts,  considered  also  as  ultimate  objects, 
again  claim  priority  over  these,  as  being,  through 
life,  far  more  useful. 

This  order  is  the  more  rational,  as  it  is  much 
easier  to  hear  or  read  a  language  than  to  speak 
or  write  it.  The  first  two  arts  require  of  the 
learner  only  a  slight  acquaintance  with  the  words 
and  phraseology ;  and,  in  many  cases,  their  mean- 
ing is  apprehended  from  the  context. 

In  speaking  and  writing,  on  the  contrary, 
neither  the  most  acute  sagacity  nor  the  greatest  in- 
ventive power  will  avail ;  not  only  must  we  pre- 
viously know  the  words  expressive  of  the  ideas  to 
be  conveyed,  but  we  must  also  be  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  their  various  shades  of  meaning, 
their    orthography  and  pronunciation,   their  in- 


20  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

flections  and  syntactic  or  idiomatic  arrange- 
ments. 

Among  the  eager  crowds  who  press  aronnd  a 
great  orator,  or  among  the  thousands  who  read  a 
good  author,  how  few  there  are,  who  could  speak 
like  the  one  or  write  like  the  other  !  In  fact,  a 
very  limited  education  will  suffice  for  the  com- 
plete mastery  of  the  arts  of  hearing  and  reading  ; 
but  to  write  and  speak  well  are  the  fruit  of  long 
study,  and  the  exclusive  privilege  of  superior 
intelligence  and  extensive  information.  The 
longest  life  would  not  suffice  to  attain  perfec- 
tion in  the  last  two  arts,  even  in  the  national 
idiom. 

In  point  of  usefulness,  writing  a  foreign  lan- 
guage comes  last,  and  reason  suggests  that  what 
is  least  needed  should  be  last  learned ;  we  must, 
therefore,  as  in  the  vernacular,  place  speaking  be- 
fore writing,  which  is  only  its  representative — the 
thing  signified  before  the  sign. 

On  the  other  hand,  conversation  is  not  at- 
tended with  the  same  inconvenience,  nor  is  there 
the  same  necessity  for  precision  as  in  epistolary 
correspondence,  or  any  other  kind  of  composition. 
Errors  in  speaking  may  always  be  corrected  at 
the  time  they  are  committed.     A  learner  is  able 


SUBDIVISION  AND   ORDEE   OF   STUDY.  21 

to  converse  much  sooner  than  to  write  a  letter ; 
because  oral  expression,  aided  by  the  language 
of  action,  requires  fewer  words  than  written  com- 
position, which  is  deprived  of  this  auxiliary.  The 
interchange  of  ideas  in  conversation  presents 
more  inducements  than  the  elaborate  task  of  epis- 
tolary composition,  and  affords  greater  facilities 
for  acquiring  the  phraseology  of  the  teacher  by 
imitation  and  analogy. 

Let  it  be  well  understood  that  this  order,  on 
which  we  insist  in  the  progressive  course  of 
studies,  does  not  mean  that  the  learner  must  be 
completely  master  of  each  of  these  arts  before 
proceeding  to  the  next ;  but  that  he  ought,  at  the 
outset,  to  direct  his  attention  exclusively  to  the 
first  object,  then  divide  it  successively  between 
that  and  the  other  three,  as  his  progress  in  each 
makes  it  an  aid  to  the  acquisition  of  the  others. 
These  different  objects  having  become  familiar, 
may  be  studied  together,  without  any  risk  of  con- 
fusion. 

Such  is  the  nature  of  the  human  mind :  it  em- 
braces a  diversity  of  known  objects  without  con- 
founding them ;  but  two  new  ones  create  perplex- 
ity, when  considered  simultaneously.  Neither 
will  be  known,  if  not  studied  separately.     "  Di- 


22  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

vide  and  conquer,"  a  political  maxim  of  Machia- 
velli,  applies  equally  to  instruction. 

The  order  to  be  followed  in  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  is,  therefore,  as  follows : 

1.  The  art  of  reading. 

2.  The  art  of  hearing. 

3.  The  art  of  speaking. 

4.  The  art  of  writing. 

In  the  first  two  arts  the  words  recall  the 
ideas ;  in  the  last  two  the  ideas  suggest  the 
words. 

The  direct  association  of  the  ideas  with  their 
signs  is  what  constitutes  the  real  practical  knowl- 
edge of  a  language,  and  what,  in  course  of  time, 
forms  habits  which  make  it  the  instrument  of 
thought.  This  end  is  attained  by  a  system  of 
judicious  repetitions.  Eepetition  is  indeed  the 
soul  of  a  good  method ;  it  engenders  habit,  and 
habit  fixes  the  acquirements  in  the  memory. 

Perfectible  and  communicative  as  we  are, 
Divine  Providence  has  endowed  us  with  two 
great  instincts  which,  by  continually  impelling  us 
toward  our  destiny,  create  that  habit  and  insure 
success  in  the  acquisition  of  language.  These  are 
curiosity  and  imitation.  Curiosity,  that  noble 
privilege  of  humanity,  that  insatiable  desire  to 


SUBDIVISION   AND   OEDEE   OP   STUDY.  23 

know,  is  ever  on  the  look-ont  for  new  sensations, 
for  new  ideas,  and  thns  enriches  the  mind :  it  is 
the  source  of  progress  in  the  arts  of  reading  and 
hearing.  Imitation,  the  basis  of  education,  iden- 
tifies ns  with  our  fellow-men,  and  prompts  us  to 
adopt  their  language  with  their  notions,  in  order 
to  communicate  our  thoughts  to  them :  it  is  the 
source  of  progress  in  the  arts  of  speaking  and 
writing. 

In  his  mother  tongue,  a  child,  whether  he 
listens  or  speaks,  practices  the  association  of  ideas 
with  their  signs  unconsciously,  by  the  mere  im- 
pulse of  nature.  But,  when  a  second  language  is 
studied  through  the  first,  it  is  by  comparing  one 
with  the  other — in  other  words,  by  translation — 
that  the  learner  passes  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, and  attaches  ideas  to  the  foreign  expres- 
sion ;  some  effort  and  a  firm  determination  are 
then  required  to  adopt  the  direct  association  of 
ideas  with  words. 

The  first  process  is  the  natural  or  practical 
method ;  the  second,  the  artificial  or  comparative 
method.  The  latter  cannot  of  itself  insure  the 
perfect  knowledge  of  a  language ;  but,  as  it  calls 
for  reflection  and  judgment,  it  becomes  a  useful 
auxiliary, for  the  development  of  the  intellect 


24:  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

The  practical  knowledge  of  a  foreign  living 
language  requires  the  successive  application  of 
these  two  methods  ;  for  it  must  have  been  inter- 
preted for  some  time  by  the  native  idiom,  before 
its  words  can  be  associated  directly  with  the 
ideas.  This  double  process  is  the  practico-com- 
paratwe  method,  which  is  chiefly  the  subject  of 
this  essay. 

All  extraneous  exercises  not  tending  directly 
to  that  knowledge,  are  only  accessories  more  or 
less  useless,  or  rather  impediments  placed  in  the 
way  of  youth  by  blind  routine. 

The  period  of  learning  will  be  shortened,  if 
the  method  be  sparing  of  those  preparatory  exer- 
cises, which  sacrifice  the  end  for  the  means,  and 
which  not  only  render  the  student's  labor  un- 
profitable, should  he  discontinue  the  pursuit,  but 
also  divest  study  of  interest,  by  keeping  out  of 
sight  the  object  at  which  he  aims.  The  special 
exercises  to  which  recourse  is  had  for  acquiring  an 
art,  should  always  be  identified  with  the  art  it- 
self, and  be  its  practical  application. 

The  young  child,  left  to  himself,  rejects  theo- 
ries, and  at  once  avails  himself  of  all  the  new  ac- 
quisitions he  makes  in  his  own  language ;  nothing 
prevents  learners  from  following  this  example  in 


SUBDIVISION   AND   OEDEE   OF   STUDY.  25 

another.  If,  in  the  task  imposed  on  them,  they 
see  something  which  is  really  useful  to  be  gained, 
and  constantly  in  prospect,  they  will  be  stimu- 
lated by  the  thought  that  their  efforts  must  have 
a  practical  result.  Being  able  to  apply  the 
knowledge  acquired,  as  they  advance,  success  be- 
comes for  them  a  powerful  incentive,  and  a  con- 
tinual source  of  enjoyment.  Thus,  a  good 
method  makes  the  path  of  duty  one  of  pleasure. 

The  great  secret  in  education  consists  in  ex- 
citing and  directing  the  will :  that  system  is  the 
best  which  elicits  the  greatest  amount  of  volun- 
tary exertion  from  the  learner  By  calling  forth 
all  the  resources  of  the  student,  and  making  him 
conscious  of  his  progress,  a  rational  method  leads 
him  to  incessant  spontaneous  efforts ;  it  does  not 
dispense  with  labor,  it  directs  and  seconds  it ;  it 
does  not  impose  learning  on  the  memory,  it  indi- 
cates the  means  of  acquiring  it,  of  making  dis- 
coveries, and  thus  renders  study  accessible  to 
those  who  are  unable  to  procure  masters. 

The  prevailing  notion  that  we  must  be  taught 
every  thing  is  a  great  evil.  The  most  extensive 
education,  given  by  the  most  skilful  masters, 
often  produces  but  inferior  characters ;  that  alone 
which  we  give  to  ourselves  elevates  us  above 


26  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

mediocrity.  The  eminence  attained  by  great  men 
is  always  the  result  of  self-imposed  labor. 

On  the  other  hand,  exclusive  dependence  on 
a  professor  might  prove  fallacious  in  the  present 
state  of  educational  science,  when  teachiug  is 
purely  empirical ;  those  who  select  it  for  a  pro- 
fession do  not  usually  prepare  for  it  by  pedagogi- 
cal studies;  and,  in  their  inexperience,  they  do 
not  always  succeed  in  imparting  to  their  pupils 
the  knowledge  which  they  possess.  To  know 
what  to  teach  and  how  to  teach  are  two  very  dif- 
ferent things.  This  is  more  especially  the  case 
with  the  teaching-  of  living  languages,  a  career 
mostly  entered  upon  accidentally  by  those  who, 
from  unfavorable  circumstances,  have  not  the 
choice  of  a  better  one. 

He  who  feels  the  want  of  learning  a  language, 
and  who,  having  a  definite  object  in  view,  is  de- 
termined to  attain  it,  will  always  rely  on  his  own 
efforts,  rather  than  on  the  ability  or  knowledge 
of  a  professor.  With  a  view  to  direct  the  unaided 
efforts  of  students,  we  have  marked  out  the  task 
which  devolves  on  them.  The  professor,  on  his 
part,  must  encourage  their  spontaneousness,  and 
teach  them  only  what  they  cannot  learn  by  them- 
selves. 


SUBDIVISION  AND   OKDER  OF   STUDY.  27 

The  better  to  effect  this  object,  the  exercises 
we  recommend  are  chiefly  those  which,  by  pre- 
senting good  models  to  the  learners,  guard  them 
against  errors,  that  only  serve  to  render  indispen- 
sable the  aid  of  an  instructor,  and  are  a  bar 
against  good  habits:  these  are  formed  by  the 
practice  of  what  is  right,  not  by  the  correction  of 
what  is  wrong. 

With  regard  to  children  as  yet  incapable  of 
self-direction,  they  must  be  assisted  through  the 
whole  course  of  their  studies.  But  the  younger 
they  are  the  slower  will  be  their  progress.  It  is  a 
strange  mistake  to  think,  as  many  people  do,  that 
the  great  facility  with  which  children  acquire 
their  own  language  is  a  proof  of  their  aptitude  for 
learning  languages  in  general,  and  that  this  study 
suits  them  best. 

It  is  not,  as  commonly  believed,  because 
memory  predominates  in  a  child,  that  he  masters 
his  language  so  easily.  This  acquirement  does 
not  consist  in  learning  words:  his  attention  is 
engaged  with  complete  propositions,  not  with  in- 
dividual words;  and  yet  he  firmly  retains  the 
latter,  in  consequence  of  their  frequent  recurrence 
and  their  association  with  the  ideas  on  which  his 
mind  is  bent.     The  admirable  spirit  of  inquiry 


28  •  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

-which  Nature  has  given  to  the  child,  is  soon 
checked,  if  we  present  to  him  words  instead  of 
the  ideas  he  wants. 

His  progress  is  the  consequence  of  his  physi- 
cal and  mental  condition,  which  makes  hi3  native 
tongue  an  object  of  incessant  attention ;  he  does 
not  receive  an  idea  nor  experience  any  sensation, 
pleasure,  or  pain,  that  is  not  accompanied  by  an 
expression,  which  is  thus  engraved  on  his  memory 
by  association. 

The  practical  method,  by  which  we  learn  our 
native  idiom,  requires  only  the  instinctive  exer- 
cise of  curiosity,  which  calls  forth  the  action  of 
the  perceptive  and  imitative  faculties.  The  com- 
parative method,  which  leads  to  the  knowledge 
of  a  language  through  the  medium  of  another,  re- 
quires, on  the  contrary,  the  cooperation  of  in- 
tellectual powers  far  greater  than  are  possessed 
by  young  children. 

It  is  only  when  the  student  can  command  at- 
tention and  concentrate  it  on  the  objects  of  study, 
when  he  can  call  to  his  aid  reflection  and  judg- 
ment, when  the  maturity  of  his  reason  enables 
him  to  comprehend  serious  books ;  it  is  then  and 
only  then  that  he  can  study  by  himself,  and  learn 
a  second  language  through  his  own.     The  better 


SUBDIVISION   AND   ORDER   OF    STUDY.  29 

lie  knows  the  latter,  the  more  easily  will  he  learn 
the  former. 

Under  the  conviction  of  this  truth,  and  with  a 
view  to  laying  a  proper  foundation  for  the  com- 
parative study  of  foreign  languages,  we  have 
dwelt  at  some  length  on  the  course  of  instruction 
by  which  an  extensive  practical  knowledge  of  the 
native  idiom  may  be  gained  during  the  first 
period  of  youth.* 

From  his  earliest  years,  it  is  true,  the  child 
shows  a  wonderful  aptitude  for  learning  lan- 
guages; but  it  is  exclusively  by  practice.  The 
constant  need,  which,  from  his  helpless  condition, 
the  child  has  of  those  who  surround  him,  and  his 
anxiety  to  know  their  thoughts,  and  enter  into 
communication  with  them,  make  it  necessary  for 
him  to  seize  on  the  great  bond  of  union  that  con- 
nects him  with  his  fellow-creatures.  Thus  has 
the  Supreme  Being  endowed  us  in  early  infancy 
with  the  inclinations  and  faculties  which  gratify 
this  first  yearning  after  social  life. 

If  an  infant  be  spoken  to  in  a  foreign  as  fre- 
quently as  in  the  native  tongue,  he  will  become 
equally  familiar  with  both.     He  might,  in  this 

*  See  book  iv.  of  "  Language  as  a  Means  of  Mental  Cul. 
ture,"  etc. 


30  THE  STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

way,  solely  guided  by  nature,  leam  from  the 
cradle  two  or  three  languages  without  confound- 
ing them,  if  brought  into  daily  contact  with  per- 
sons who  spoke  them  in  his  presence,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  in  the  higher  classes  of  society, 
in  which  children  learn  the  use  of  several  lan- 
guages. They  have  governesses  and  servants  of 
different  countries,  who  always  address  them  each 
in  his  own  language. 

Every  period  of  life  has  its  special  obligations 
and  occupations  which  prepare  for  the  next.  We 
must  not  anticipate  the  course  of  nature,  and  re- 
quire of  one  period  what  belongs  to  another.  Be- 
fore the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  a  child  cannot 
learn  a  language  from  books  by  the  aid  of  his 
own;  the  weakness  of  his  understanding,  his 
want  of  motives  for  study,  and  his  reluctance  for 
sedentary  occupations,  thwart  the  efforts  of  the 
master,  who  then  employs  more  time  in  ascertain- 
ing whether  his  pupils  have  clearly  understood 
him,  and  have  learned  their  lessons,  than  he  de- 
votes to  real  teaching.  This  observation  applies 
more  particularly  to  classical  studies ;  they  are 
commenced  too  soon  and  commenced  the  wrong 
way.  It  cannot  even  be  said,  in  favor  of  the 
early  study  of  a  foreign  idiom,  that  it  makes  a 


SUBDIVISION   AND   OEDEE  OF   STUDY.  31 

deeper  impression  on  the  mind  ;  out  of  a  hundred 
persons  who  have  studied  a  language  by  the  com- 
parative method  before  their  twelfth  year,  ninety- 
nine  have  but  a  faint  recollection  of  it  a  few  years 
after  they  have  left  school. 

The  incomplete  knowledge  which  a  young 
child  possesses  either  of  things  or  of  his  own  lan- 
guage is,  as  well  as  the  immaturity  of  his  intel- 
lect, an  impediment  to  his  comprehending  foreign 
authors.  He  must  indeed  find  it  difficult  to  ren- 
der the  noble  thoughts  and  admirable  style  of 
great  writers,  when,  as  yet,  he  has  conceived  only 
the  simplest  ideas,  and  has  at  his  command  only 
the  most  familiar  expressions. 

With  the  help  of  a  dictionary,  he  may  trans- 
late every  word  of  a  foreign  author ;  but,  in  many 
cases,  he  will  still  remain  ignorant  of  his  mean- 
ing ;  •  because  a  dictionary  in  two  languages  gives 
the  corresponding  terms  without  defining  them, 
or  explaining  their  signification.  The  child  does 
no  more  than  render  one  unknown  word  by 
another  equally  unknown — a  baneful  practice, 
which  accustoms  him  to  take  sound  for  sense,  and 
disposes  him,  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  to  indulge  in 
empty  talk  and  false  reasoning. 

But,  should  even  a  child  succeed,  with  his 


32  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

master's  assistance,  in  rendering  the  original  text 
with  tolerable  accuracy,  this  is  not  the  true  end 
to  be  attained.  It  is  degrading  great  writers, 
ancient  or  modern,  to  subject  them  to  a  transla- 
tion which  gives  the  letter,  not  the  spirit,  of  the 
original,  and  to  make  their  noble  pages  mere 
parsing-lessons.  They  are  entitled  to  a  nobler 
part.  The  scope  of  their  works,  the  wisdom  of 
their  views,  and  the  beauty  of  their  diction,  ought 
to  be  not  only  appreciated,  but  imitated  in  the 
national  language,  a  task  far  beyond  the  powers 
of  childhood. 

The  important  lessons  to  be  learned,  and 
the  intellectual  enjoyments  to  be  derived  from 
ancient  literature,  are  lost  to  the  mature  man, 
owing  to  the  childish  conceptions  which  he  asso- 
ciated with  the  classics  at  school,  and  to  the  un- 
pleasant recollection  of  all  the  misery  attendant 
on  the  study.  "  The  flowers  of  classic  genius 
with  which  the  teacher's  solitary  fancy  is  most 
gratified,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "have  been 
rendered  degraded  in  his  imagination,  by  their 
connection  with  tears,  with  errors,  and  with 
punishments ;  so  that  the  Eclogues  of  Yirgil 
and  the  Odes  of  Horace  are  each  inseparably  al- 
lied in  association  with  the  sullen  figure  and  mo- 
notonous recitation  of  some  blubbering  school- 


SUBDIVISION   AND   ORDER   OF    STUDY.  33 

boy."  Such  are  the  pernicious  consequences  of 
the  premature  study  of  the  classics,  that  Lord 
Byron,  whose  mind  was  so  well  fitted  to  enjoy 
the  beauties  of  Horace,  had  he  read  his  writings 
at  the  proper  time,  complains  in  poetical  and  bit- 
ter strains  of  the  unconquerable  dislike  with 
which  the  scholastic  system  had  inspired  him  for 
that  poet. 

Lamartine  makes  an  observation  of  the  same 
tendency,  in  his  "  Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land." 
"  Each  wave,"  he  says,  "  brings  me  nearer  to 
Greece.  I  touch  its  soil ;  its  appearance  affects 
me  deeply,  much  less,  however,  than  it  would 
have  done  if  all  these  recollections  were  not  ac- 
companied by  the  consciousness  that  instruction 
was  forced  on  me  to  satiety  and  disgust  before  I 
could  comprehend  it.  Greece  is  to  me  like  a 
book  of  which  the  beauties  are  tarnished,  because 
I  was  compelled  to  read  it  before  I  could  under- 
stand it I  prefer  a  tree,  a  spring  under  a 

rock,  an  oleander  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  or  the 
fallen  arch  of  a  bridge,  covered  with  the  foliage 
of  some  climbing  evergreen,  to  the  monuments  of 
one  of  these  classic  kingdoms,  which  recall  to  my 
mind  nothing  but  the  ennui  they  gave  me  in  my 
boyhood." 


34  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

In  order  to  give  a  more  distinct  idea  of  the 
principles  propounded  in  the  preceding  pages,  we 
will  recapitulate  them  in  the  following  maxims, 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  axioms  of  our 
method : 

1.  Nature  is  our  best  guide  in  the  study  of 
languages. 

2.  To  think  in  a  language  is  the  primary  con- 
dition for  knowing  it. 

3.  The  study  of  the  signs  implies  the  previous 
possession  of  the  ideas. 

4.  The  association  of  ideas  with  their  signs 
results  from  practice. 

5.  To  practise  a  language  is  to  receive  and  ex- 
press ideas  through  it. 

6.  Curiosity  and  imitation  are  the  source  of 
progress  in  the  study  of  languages ;  hence, 

(1.)  Example  is  better  than  precept ; 
(2.)  Practice  should  precede  theory. 

7.  We  must,  following  the  dictates  of  nature, 
proceed  from  the  whole  to  its  parts. 

8.  The  means  should  be  consistent  with  the 
end. 

0.  "We  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  end  pro- 
posed. 


SUBDIVISION  AND   OEDER   OF   STUDY.  35 

10.  What  we  wish  to  remember  must  be  con- 
verted into  a  habit. 

11.  One  thing  only  should  be  done  at  a  time, 
and  every  thing  in  its  time. 

12.  Beading    leads    to    hearing,  hearing    to 
speaking,  and  speaking  to  writing. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE     ABT     OF     READING 


"Lire,  lire,et  toujours  lire  dans  la  langue  fitrangerc,  tfest  le  rooyen 
par  excellence." 

Ajassonde  Gbansagne. 


To  read  is  to  conform  to  one  of  the  laws  of 
our  nature — the  instinct  of  curiosity;  it  is  to 
follow  on  the  page  the  ideas  which  the  writer  has 
consigned  to  it ;  it  is  to  appropriate  them,  as  well 
as  the  forms  under  which  he  presents  them. 

Books,  the  depositories  of  the  intellectual 
treasures  which  generations  bequeath  to  succeed- 
ing generations,  are  the  most  efficient  instruments 
of  instruction  in  all  the  branches  of  literature  and 
science.  The  variety  of  information  which  a 
proper  course  of  reading  brings  under  the  con- 
sideration of  a  student,  and  the  opportunities  it 
affords  him  of  surmounting  the  intricacies  pre- 
sented by  the  different  acceptations  of  words,  by 
technical  expressions,  and  idiomatic  forms,  will 
secure  the  means  of  enjoying  the  commerce  of  the 


THE  AET  OF  READING.  37 

well  informed  and  taking  part  in  their  conver- 
sation. 

The  nations  with  which  foreign  languages 
enable  us  to  exchange  thoughts,  having  diverse 
origins,  living  under  different  climates,  brought 
up  in  habits  and  subject  to  laws  peculiar  to 
themselves,  must  also  have  ideas  and  opinions 
differing  from  ours.  Their  writers  must  see  in  a 
different  light  many  questions  which  have  also 
been  treated  by  our  national  authors.  In  history, 
in  politics,  in  belles-lettres,  in  the  arts,  and  in 
other  departments  of  knowledge,  their  notions 
often  widely  differ  from  ours ;  the  perusal  of  their 
works  will  therefore  enlarge  the  circle  of  our 
ideas  and  bring  us  nearer  to  the  truth. 

In  short,  the  habitual  reading  of  good  works 
in  different  languages  has  a  most  beneficial  influ- 
ence on  our  understanding ;  it  stores  the  memory 
with  knowledge,  and  leads,  by  the  force  of  sym- 
pathy and  imitation,  to  the  highest  conceptions, 
and  to  the  practice  of  all  that  is  great  and  good. 
By  continual  contact  with  superior  minds,  we  not 
only  come  to  feel  their  emotions,  to  think  their 
thoughts,  and  to  speak  their  language,  but  our 
own  sentiments  are  refined,  our  thoughts  elevated, 
and  our  power  of  expression  extended. 


38  THE  STUDY  OF  LANQUAGES. 

A  good  book  is  the  best  companion  of  our 
leisure  hours ;  we  can  at  any  time  have  recourse 
to  it,  and  select  one  from  which,  as  we  feel  in- 
clined, we  may  derive  either  amusement  or  in- 
struction. It  is  otherwise  with  men ;  we  cannot 
command  their  services  for  either  purpose,  when 
we  are  inclined  to  converse,  and  it  rarely  hap- 
pens that  our  thirst  after  knowledge  can  be 
satisfied  by  those  we  commonly  meet  in  society. 

"We  have  not  here  to  treat  of  reading  con- 
sidered as  the  art  of  attaching  to  the  written 
words  the  articulate  sounds,  which  they  repre- 
sent, and  which,  in  the  mother  tongue,  recall  to 
the  mind  their  correlative  ideas ;  this  is  not  the 
case  in  a  language  of  which  we  do  not  know  the 
pronunciation,  nor  can  the  written  words  lead  to 
it;  because  the  sign  recalls  the  thing  signified 
only  to  one  who  knows  that  thing,  the  art  of 
reading  the  native,  and  that  of  reading  a  foreign 
language,  cannot  be  assimilated. 

The  art  of  reading,  which,  in  the  case  of  a 
foreign  language,  is  the  most  useful,  both  as  an 
end  and  as  a  means,  may  be  acquired  without 
the  assistance  of  a  master.  If,  in  infancy,  we 
learn,  alone,  to  understand  the  spoken  language, 
and  afterward  to  speak  it,  we  ought  to  be  able, 


THE  ART    OF   READING.  39 

in  the  maturity  of  reason,  to  learn,  unaided,  how 
to  understand  the  written  language  and  write  it. 

To  teach  one's  self  how  to  read  a  foreign  lan- 
guage is  almost  a  necessity ;  for  it  often  happens 
that  a  foreigner  who  teaches  his  own  language  is 
not  sufficiently  versed  in  that  of  his  pupils  to  ex- 
plain the  text  of  authors,  to  indicate  the  expres- 
sions equivalent  to  those  of  the  original,  or  to 
correct  the  mistakes  they  make  in  translating. 

It  is  by  no  means  a  rare  occurrence,  that  a 
person,  unable  to  earn  a  living  in  his  own  coun- 
try, goes  abroad  with  the  intention  of  teaching  his 
native  language,  without  previously  preparing 
himself  by  learning  that  of  the  country  where  he 
wishes  to  establish  himself  as  a  teacher,  and  with- 
out even  thoroughly  knowing  his  own.  Gold- 
smith, the  author  of  the  "  Yicar  of  "Wakefield," 
relates  how  he  went  to  Holland  with  a  view  to 
teaching  English  there,  but  found,  on  his  arrival, 
that  a  knowledge  of  the  Dutch  language,  of  which 
he  was  utterly  ignorant,  was  indispensable  for  the 
realization  of  his  project.  He  then  thought  that 
the  wisest  course  he  could  take  was  to  return  to 
England  by  the  very  same  ship  which  had  brought 
him  thence. 

An  unknown  text  can  be  explained  only  by  a 


40  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

known  text,  which  is  its  equivalent,  and  which 
cannot  be  discovered  by  one  ignorant  of  the  lan- 
guage, for  we  can  translate  only  what  we  under- 
stand. This  equivalent,  or  translation,  a  professor 
must  know  perfectly,  in  order  to  present  it  viva 
voce  to  his  pupils  when  very  young.  A  printed 
translation  will  suffice  for  students  who  are  old 
enough  to  dispense  with  a  master. 

Grammar  affords  no  assistance  in  reading ;  it 
does  not  explain  the  meaning  of  phrases  or  words, 
which  is  the  only  difficulty  encountered  in  learn- 
ing to  read  a  foreign  language.  The  translation 
which  interprets  th,e  unknown  text,  not  the  gram- 
matical condition  of  the  words,  must  be  the  first, 
the  only  object  for  the  beginner's  consideration. 
Grammar  may  teach  a  person  who  speaks  or 
writes  incorrectly,  how  to  speak  or  write  cor- 
rectly, but  it  certainly  is  not  the  art  of  reading 
and  understanding  a  language.  "No  one  has  ever 
been  insane  enough  to  attach  to  it  this  definition. 
This  twofold  acquisition  is,  as  we  have  clearly 
shown,  the  first  thing  to  be  mastered  by  students : 
grammar,  therefore,  is  obviously  useless  at  the 
entrance  on  the  study. 

Syntax,  more  especially,  cannot  be  an  auxil- 
iary, inasmuch    as,    contrary  to   the    order   of 


THE   AET   OF   BEADING.  41 

nature,  it  puts  precept  before  example,  theory 
before  practice,  and  makes  us  pass  from  words  to 
their  combinations.  In  the  progressive  develop- 
ment of  the  intellect,  the  perception  of  an  object 
always  precedes  the  consideration  of  its  parts ;  we 
learn  to  understand  our  own  language  by  passing 
from  the  phraseology  to  the  words.  The  latter 
have  no  value  but  that  which  is  assigned  to  them 
by  the  phrase.  The  function  they  perform  in 
speech  determines  the  class  to  which  they  belong, 
as  well  as  their  signification.  Besorting  to  the 
phrase  for  an  explanation  of  the  words  is  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  idea  to  the  sign. 

If  we  then  wish  to  follow  the  prescriptions  of 
nature  in  acquiring  the  art  of  reading  a  foreign 
language,  we  must  not  prepare  for  it  by  learning 
either  its  grammar  or  its  words.  The  latter  can 
be  known  only  in  books,  by  means  of  the  context 
which  fixes  their  signification.  It  is  not  by  a 
previous  study  of  words  that  we  come  to  under- 
stand what  is  said  to  us  in  our  own  tongue ;  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  by  hearing  and  reading  that  we 
form  a  vocabulary  for  ourselves.  M  Is  not,"  says 
De  Gerando,  "  the  nomenclature  of  a  language, 
taught  as  a  preparatory  exercise,  whatever  care 
may  be  taken,   most  uninteresting,   and  hence 


4:2  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

most  prejudicial  to  the  first  stage  of  the  study, 
when  it  is  so  important  to  make  this  first  stage 
easy  and  attractive  ? " 

We  will,  however,  make  an  exception  in  favor 
of  a  very  limited  class  of  words. 

The  elements  of  speech  which  form  what  we 
call  the  first  class  of  words,  are  the  substantives, 
adjectives,  and  verbs.  They  are  significant  by 
themselves,  and  constitute  the  essential  parts  of 
a  proposition. 

The  other  elements  of  speech,  forming  the 
second  class,  the  articles,  pronouns,  prepositions, 
adverbs,  and  conjunctions,  merely  serve  to  con- 
nect, modify,  and  complete  the  sense  of  the  other 
three  species  of  words.* 

*  We  do  not  include  inio'jedions  in  our  classification ;  because, 
different  from  the  other  elements  of  speech,  they  are  not  conven- 
tional terms,  and  have  not  any  fixed  character ;  they  vary  in  their 
pronunciation  and  application  with  the  temperament  of  individuals, 
and  the  different  emotions  which  give  them  birth.  As  instinctive 
cries  of  nature,  they  are  universal,  and  belong  to  the  language  of 
action,  not  to  any  particular  idiom.  It  is  then  an  error  to  class 
these  inarticulate  sounds  among  the  parts  of  speech,  especially  as 
they  never  enter  into  the  construction  of  sentences,  and  are  not 
subject  to  any  syntactical  law.  Laughter,  shrieks,  and  all  other 
involuntary  vocal  convulsions,  might  as  justly  be  called  parts  of 
speech. 

These  remarks  apply  to  interjections  properly  so  called,  not  to 


THE  AET  OF  BEADING.  43 

To  these  words  we  will  add  the  expletives, 
which  have  been  denied  a  place  in  grammatical 
nomenclature,  although  acting  an  important  part 
in  discourse.  They  serve  to  point  out  the  gram- 
matical condition  or  function  of  the  words  before 
which  they  are  placed,  such  as  to,  the  sign  of  the 
present  of  the  infinitive  mood,  and  shall,  the  sign 
of  the  future.  II  (it)  in  French,  is  an  expletive, 
when  it  marks  the  impersonality  of  the  verb. 

It  is  to  the  second  class  of  words  that  tho 
above-mentioned  exception  refers.  An  acquaint- 
ance with  them  might  be  useful,  if  gained  at  the 
outset,  or  studied  simultaneously  with  the  prac- 
tice in  reading;  for,  although  apparently  of 
secondary  importancej  they  are  the  binding  links 
of  discourse,  and  materially  modify  the  sense  of 
sentences. 

Committing  to  memory  words  of  the  first  class 
would  not  assist  a  beginner ;  for,  as  their  differ- 
ent acceptations  depend  on  a  phraseology  as  yet 
unknown,  the  vagueness  of  their  import  in  a  vo- 
cabulary would  create  difficulties.  But,  besides 
these  different  acceptations,  their  other  essential 

exclamatory  expressions,  such  as,  away !  bravo  !  heaven  !  hark  ! 
help !  murder,  etc.,  -which,  although  ranked  among  interjections, 
nre  elliptical  propositions,  formed  from  different  classes  of  words. 
3 


4:4:  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

elements,  pronunciation,  orthography,  inflections, 
syntactical  concord,  and  place  in  the  sentence, 
constitute  a  series  of  considerations  which  the  at- 
tention could  not  embrace  at  the  entrance  upon 
the  study. 

The  absence  of  connection  between  these 
words  in  vocabularies  must  also  make  it  difficult 
to  retain  them.  Even  if  they  were  remembered, 
they  would  be  of  little  avail  in  translating ;  for 
different  subjects,  different  styles  having  terms 
peculiar  to  each,  and  rarely  to  be  met  with  in 
works  to  which  they  do  not  properly  belong,  the 
student  might  not  meet  in  his  first  volume  with 
many  of  those  which  he  had  been  at  so  much 
pains  to  learn.  It  is  from  the  connected  discourse 
in  which  they  are  incorporated,  that  their  precise 
import  can  be  ascertained.  In  imitation,  there- 
fore, of  what  occurs  in  acquiring  the  vernacular, 
these  words  must,  in  the  foreign  tongue,  be  learned, 
by  reading  and  hearing,  and  not  be  made  the 
means  of  learning  these  branches. 

The  words  of  the  second  class,  on  the  contrary, 
enter  into  all  compositions,  whatever  be  the  sub- 
ject or  the  style ;  most  of  them  having  only  one 
signification,  acquaintance  with  it  will  facilitate 
the  understanding  of  the  text.     The  uniformity 


THE  ART  OF  BEADING.  45 

of  their  orthography,  and  their  very  limited  num- 
ber (not  400),  will  render  their  acquisition  easy ; 
while  their  frequent  recurrence  in  every  thing  the 
student  reads,  will  fix  them  firmly  in  his  memory. 
Let  any  one  open  a  French  duodecimo  volume, 
and  he  will  find  that  every  line  contains  four, 
five,  or  more  words  of  this  class.  In  number 
they  are  the  hundredth  part  of  the  other  words  ; 
but,  in  composition,  they  occur  twice  as  often ; 
so  that  each  word  of  the  second  class  is  used  on 
an  average  two  hundred  times  often er  than  one 
of  the  first  class. 

A.  previous  acquaintance  with  these  words  will 
prove  useful,  especially  in  reading  French ;  be- 
cause, as  their  orthography  differs  completely  from 
that  of  the  corresponding  terms  in  English,  their 
meaning  cannot  be  divined  like  that  of  substan- 
tives, adjectives,  and  verbs,  three-fourths  of  which 
bear  great  resemblance  to  each  other  in  the  two 
languages. 

As  the  means  should  always  be  consistent  with 
the  end,  it  will  suffice  to  study  their  form,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  recognize  them  at  sight.  The  same 
may  be  done  with  the  inflections  of  the  verbs,  and 
those  of  substantives  in  languages  which  admit  of 
cases.     This  is  not  learning  grammar :  the  words 


48  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

But,  as  direct  reading  can  be  arrived  at  only 
through  the  medium  of  translation,  the  student 
must,  as  a  preliminary  step  toward  it,  attend 
seriously  to  the  latter.  ISTo  parsing,  no  gram- 
matical comment  on  the  language :  all  he  requires 
is  to  advance  rapidly  in  the  comprehension  of  the 
text  in  hand,  that  he  may  become  acquainted 
with  a  large  number  of  words  and  phrases.  Prac- 
tice is  now  the  object ;  we  will  subsequently  sug- 
gest modes  of  mental  culture. 

The  first  books  to  be  used  should  treat  of 
familiar  subjects,  and  be  written  in  an  easy  style, 
in  order  to  avoid  encountering  at  the  same  time 
the  difficulty  of  the  subject  and  that  of  the  lan- 
guage. Attention  is  then  directed  to  the  form, 
not  to  the  matter ;  it  is  absorbed  in  the  work  of 
translation.  All  serious  instruction,  apart  from 
the  language  itself,  would  be  ill-timed. 

These  books  are,  as  it  were,  only  practical  or 
reading  vocabularies,  but  vocabularies  addressed 
to  the  understanding  as  well  as  to  the  memory, 
and  the  words  of  which  have  a  definite  meaning. 
They  will  familiarize  the  student  with  the  terms 
and  phraseology  of  ordinary  conversation,  at  the 
same  time  that  they  will  lay  the  foundation  for 
studies  of  a  higher  character.    The  elements  of 


THE  ART   OF  READING.  49 

discourse,  by  the  daily  practice  of  reading,  like 
all  daily  occurrences,  remain  in  the  memory  with- 
out effort,  as  deposits  from  the  stream  of  experi- 
ence. 

Correctness  of  language  is  nearly  all  that  is 
required  in  the  tex^  of  these  initiatory  books. 
Any  other  merit  would  be  lost,  at  least  out  of 
place,  at  a  period  when  it  cannot  possibly  be  dis- 
tinguished, still  less  appreciated,  especially  as  the 
meaning  is  reached  only  by  translation. 

The  initiatory  texts  to  be  translated  should  be 
rather  below  than  above  the  age  of  the  learners, 
who  should  never  be  required  to  read  works 
which  would  be  above  their  comprehension  if 
written  in  the  national  idiom.  In  the  study  of 
languages,  as  in  that  of  the  fine  arts,  master- 
pieces are  not  fit  for  beginners ;  novices  always 
work  on  materials  of  an  inferior  kind.  The  most 
eminent  writers  and  orators  have,  in  .childhood, 
passed  through  the  ordeal  of  trivial  language  and 
commonplace  ideas. 

"We  insist  on  this  point,  because  the  prevalent 
notion  that  none  but  works  written  in  the  most 
elegant  or  classical  style  ought  to  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  beginners,  creates  the  necessity  of  resort- 
ing to  various  preparatory  exercises,  and  is  in  op- 


50  TIIE    STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

position  to  the  principle  of  gradation  dictated  by 
nature :  it  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  both  of  the 
discouragement  experienced  by  learners  at  their 
entrance  upon  the  study,  and  of  the  unreasonable 
duration  of  linguistic  instruction. 

Modern  literatures  present  inexhaustible  food 
to  curiosity,  and  great  facilities  for  the  strict  ap- 
plication of  the  principle  of  gradation  of  difficul- 
ties ;  they  abound  in  books  which,  being  intended 
for  young  people,  may  serve  as  an  introduction 
to  reading,  and  as  models  for  learning  to  speak 
and  write.  In  this  respect,  living  languages  have 
a  great  advantage  over  the  dead :  in  the  latter, 
the  number  of  works  which  have  been  handed 
down  to  us  is  too  limited  to  permit  in  all  cases 
the  difficulty  of  the  task  to  be  adapted  to  the 
learner's  capacity.  Their  elevated  character  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  immature  minds ;  it  is  there- 
fore the  understanding  of  the  student  which,  by 
proper  delay,  must  be  raised  to  the  standard  of 
the  classics.  What  is  above  the  capacity  of  a  boy 
of  ten  or  twelve  may  have  some  chance  of  being 
understood  by  a  lad  of  fifteen  or  sixteen. 

The  learner  must  read  a  considerable  quantity 
of  prose  before  he  enters  on  poetry.  It  is  by 
gradual  steps  that,  in  the  native  tongue,  we  are 


THE  ART  OF  BEADING.  51 

enabled  to  commune  with  superior  minds.  It  is 
absurd  to  make  poetical  compositions  of  a  high 
order  a  means  of  study ;  they  are  its  end,  its  re- 
ward. He  who  uses  them  as  a  means,  will  not 
feel  a  wish  to  read  them  when  he  has  learned  the 
language.  What  shall  we  say  of  the  common 
practice  of  putting  into  the  hands  of  young  people 
who  have  read  only  a  few  volumes,  the  works  of 
Dante  or  of  Milton,  poets  whom  their  own  coun- 
trymen can  scarcely  understand  ?  * 

Nor  are  voluminous  works  fit  for  beginners ; 
they  lose  all  their  interest,  on  account  of  the  slow- 
ness with  which  they  are  read.  The  kind  which 
appears  to  combine  the  most  favorable  conditions 
are  first  the  books  which  treat  of  subjects  familiar 
to  the  student,  then  fables,  anecdotes,  tales,  nar- 
ratives, and  historical  sketches ;  these  are  subjects 
of  general  interest,  which  become  more  interesting 
still  if  they  relate  to  the  nation  whose  language 

*  "  Chi  oramai  in  Italia,  chi  e"  che  verairtente  legga,  e  intend  a, 
e  gusti,  e  vivamente  senta  Dante  e  Petrarca  ?  Uno  in  mille  a  dir 
molto." — Alfieri. 

The  style  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost "  had  become  so  anti- 
quated, so  obscure,  about  a  hundred  years  ago,  that  a  bookseller, 
named  Osborne,  thought  proper  to  publish  a  prose  version  of  it 
for  the  benefit  of  "  ordinary  readers." 


52  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

is  studied.  A  style  intelligible  to  children  and 
purely  narrative,  as  being  the  easiest,  is  the  most 
suitable  for  beginners,  even  those  of  mature  in- 
tellect. Learners,  whatever  be  their  age,  will 
apply  the  more  willingly  to  this  task,  as  it  grati- 
fies instinctive  inquisitiveness,  and  is  the  least 
painful  of  all  that  are  imposed  by  the  study  of  a 
language.  By  facilitating  their  first  steps  in  read- 
ing we  command  their  attention,  give  them  a 
taste  for  reading,  and  secure  their  success. 

The  reading  of  the  foreign  text  may  be  com- 
menced at  the  outset,  without  any  preparatory 
studies  or  exercises,  by  means  of  a  literal  transla- 
tion. "With  the  interpretation  of  that  text  before 
his  eyes,  the  student,  having  first  perused  an  Eng- 
lish phrase,  will  then  utter  it  with  his  eyes 
directed  to  its  foreign  equivalent ;  that  is,  he  will 
translate  the  latter  in  mentally  attaching,  as  far 
as  it  is  practicable,  the  known  to  the  unknown 
words.  For  greater  facility  in  passing  from  one 
text  to  the  other,  these  should  be  placed  opposite 
to  each  other  in  the  first  books  which  he  uses. 

In  all  countries  possessing  a  literature,  the  best 
works  have  been  translated  and  are  daily  trans- 
lated from  one  language  into  another.  There 
can  be  no  difficulty  in  procuring  these  auxiliaries, 


THE  AKT  OF  KEADIHG.  53 

but,  out  of  the  great  number  of  translations, 
students  must  select  those  which,  as  they  render 
faithfully  the  foreign  text,  most  closely  follow  its 
construction.  Their  great  merit  for  a  beginner 
is  to  be  literal,  and  yet  written  in  a  clear  and  cor- 
rect style.  The  previous  knowledge  of  the  words 
of  the  second  class  and  of  the  inflections  of  those 
of  the  first,  which  we  recommend  above,  will  be 
the  more  useful  according  as  the  auxiliary  transla- 
tion is  less  literal. 

The  mode  of  interpretation  which  we  recom- 
mend is  peculiar  in  so  far  as  it  permits  a  foreign 
language  to  be  studied  through  an  English  trans- 
lation, or  an  English  original  text  which  has  been 
translated  into  that  language.  The  same  book 
may,  therefore,  serve  for  students  of  the  two  coun- 
tries. All  the  works,  for  instance,  published  in 
France  and  in  England  or  America  with  the 
French  and  the  English  opposite  each  other,  are 
equally  useful  to  the  English  or  Americans  who 
learn  French  and  to  the  French  who  learn  Eng- 
lish. These  interpretations,  by  removing  uncer- 
tainty as  regards  the  true  meaning  of  the  foreign 
text,  far  surpass  in  efficiency  the  usual  mode  of 
translating  with  the  help  of  a  dictionary,  which 
continually  leads  to  errors  that  call  for  assistance. 


54  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

They  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  either  a 
master  or  a  dictionary.  The  enormous  time  con- 
sumed by  the  latter,  and  the  perplexity  arising 
from  its  various  interpretations,  discourage  be- 
ginners, and  delay  their  progress,  when  they  have 
to  look  out  for  nearly  all  the  words  of  their  au- 
thor. 

"Words,  moreover,  which  are  thus  translated 
one  by  one,  present  but  a  vague  meaning,  and  fre- 
quently none,  to  a  child  as  yet  little  versed  in  his 
own  language.  Their  signification  depends  on 
the  very  text  the  sense  of  which  he  is  seeking. 
To  find  out  the  unknown  through  the  unknown, 
such  is  the  circle  in  which  he  is  placed  by  the 
dictionary. 

It  is  partly  owing  to  this  illogical,  repulsive, 
and  unnatural  process  that  must  be  attributed, 
for  the  great  majority  of  young  persons,  the  signal 
failure  of  linguistic  studies.  "With  the  aid  of  a 
dictionary  they  hardly  translate,  and  translate 
badly,  twenty-five  or  thirty  lines  a  day,  about  a 
volume  in  the  course  of  a  year,  whereas  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  volumes  at  least  should  be  read  to 
secure  the  complete  acquisition  of  the  art  of  read- 
ing. 

Some  people  imagine  that  the  use  of  the  die- 


THE  AET   OF  BEADING.  55 

tionary  impresses  the  words  on  the  memory,  for* 
getting  that  this  mode  of  coming  at  their  mean- 
ing is  not  the  fruit  of  reflection,  and  does  not  con- 
stitute a  discovery,  any  more  than  being  told  it  or 
taking  it  from  a  translation :  it  is  a  mere  reliance 
on  the  testimony  of  others,  with  the  additional  un- 
certainty and  confusion  arising  from  various  inter- 
pretations for  the  same  word.  Its  inefficiency  as 
a  mnemonic  auxiliary  is  proved  by  experience. 
The  languages  learned  by  drudging  at  it,  are 
mostly  forgotten  with  amazing  rapidity.  How 
could  it  be  otherwise,  when  the  use  of  thumb  and 
fingers  is  substituted  for  the  exercise  of  the  intel- 
lect %  The  native  words  gained  without  the  dic- 
tionary are  retained  with  extreme  tenacity.  In 
any  case,  that  pretended  auxiliary  is  incompatible 
with  the  principle  of  our  nature  which  causes  us 
to  pass  from  the  whole  to  its  parts,  from  the 
phrase  to  the  words.  The  dictionary,  however, 
can  be  had  recourse  to  when,  at  an  advanced  period 
of  the  study,  the  learner  meets  with  few  unknown 
words,  and  is  able  from  the  context  to  choose  the 
right  meaning  from  among  those  given  in  its  col- 
lumns. 

The  readiness  with  which  a  learner, through  a 
translation  in  juxtaposition,  seizes  the  thought  of 


56  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

the  author,  and  the  logical  sequence  of  the  sub- 
ject, gives  an  interest  to  reading,  which  it  cannot 
have  with  the  dictionary,  as  the  latter,  by  direct- 
ing his  attention  to  each  word  individually,  breaks 
off  the  connection  between  the  ideas.  If  the 
annexed  translation  enable  the  learner  to  get 
through  the  text  more  easily  than  he  can  with 
the  dictionary,  he  will  translate  more  in  a  given 
time,  so  that  the  same  expressions  will  present 
themselves  the  more  frequently,  according  as  they 
are  more  useful,  and,  as  in  the  mother-tongue,  will 
be  remembered  in  proportion  to  their  usefulness. 
Progress  is  always  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  time 
devoted  to  translating  the  first  volumes.  .  One 
hundred  pages,  for  instance,  read  at  the  rate  of 
ten  pages  a  day,  will  advance  a  learner  more  than 
the  same  number  would,  if  read  at  the  rate  of  one 
page  a  day. 

The  foreign  phraseology  to  a  beginner  is  a 
true  chaos,  in  which  the  eye  perceives  nothing 
distinctly :  by  degrees,  the  frequent  reappearance 
of  the  same  elements  in  their  appropriate  places 
exhibits  their  essential  characteristics  and  makes 
the  object  of  attention  gradually  clearer.  After  a 
while,  the  light  begins  to  dawn,  and  they  all  present 
themselves  in  intelligible  and  harmonious  order. 


THE   ART  OF  READING.  57 

The  division  of  the  labor  which  falls  to  the 
share  of  the  master  and  pupils  respectively,  is 
favorable  to  public  teaching,  as  it  allows  the  lat- 
ter to  advance  in  reading  in  proportion  to  their 
desire  of  learning  and  to  the  time  they  can  spare 
for  study.  The  quantity  which  they  may  read 
daily  should  be  regulated,  not  by  what  an  in- 
structor has  leisure  to  hear  in  the  class,  but  by 
the  time  which  they  can  devote  to  it  in  their  pri- 
vate studies,  and  by  the  facility  with  which  they 
perform  the  exercise. 

All  the  members  of  a  class,  according  to  their 
different  degrees  of  proficiency,  may  read  differ- 
ent works,  especially  as  the  professor  does  not 
make  these  a  subject  of  examination  for  each 
pupil  separately.  It  is,  as  will  be  seen,  when  he 
conies  to  initiate  them  in  the  art  of  hearing  that 
he  can  judge  of  their  diligence  in  his  absence. 

In  this  way,  diligent  learners  are  not  kept 
back  in  their  studies  by  the  indolence  or  inca- 
pacity of  some  of  their  school-fellows,  as  fre- 
quently happens  in  the  present  state  of  public 
teaching,  in  which  the  professor  imposes  the  same 
book  and  the  same  task  on  all,  without  the  least 
regard  to  the  intellectual  inequalities  that  may 
exist  among  them.     This  mode  of  reducing  the 


58  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

intellects  and  capabilities  of  all  to  the  same  stand- 
ard, condemns  some  to  a  deplorable  inactivity,  and 
others  to  a  task  above  their  strength. 

The  mode  of  proceeding  at  the  commencement 
should  be  nearly  as  follows:  To  devote  exclu- 
sively to  the  translation  of  the  first  volumes  all 
the  time  one  has  for  study  in  the  absence  of  the 
teacher,  to  go  several  times  over  the  same  pas- 
sages for  some  weeks,  to  peruse  every  day  the 
lesson  of  the  day  before,  and  gradually  throw  off 
dependence  on  the  translation  opposite.  As  the 
work  becomes  easier,  more  will  be  translated  in  a 
given  time,  and  the  learner  will  soon  be  able  to 
dispense  with  auxiliary  texts. 

He  should,  however,  guard  against  excess  in 
this  respect,  against  premature  attempts  at  perfec- 
tion. By  dwelling  very  long  on  the  first  pages  the 
task  would  be  made  tedious  and  disagreeable,  at 
the  very  time  when  his  curiosity  needs  to  be 
stimulated  by  variety  and  novelty.  Besides,  by 
such  dilatory  minuteness,  words  and  phrases  of 
rare  occurrence  would  be  apt  to  occupy  time  and 
attention  to  the  exclusion  of  those  which  are  more 
immediately  required;  whereas,  by  steady  prog- 
ress through  the  book,  he  will  more  frequently 
meet  with  those  which  are  the  most  useful,  and 


THE   ART    OF  BEADING.  59 

his  acquisition  of  them  will  be  consistent  with  the 
demands  of  colloquial  intercourse.  Besides,  wo 
can  know  the  full  import  of  words  only  by  meet- 
ing with  them  in  various  circumstances.  "We  pro- 
ceed thus  in  the  native  tongue  and  in  all  the  arts. 
Long  concentration  of  the  mind  on  one  subject, 
as  the  division  of  labor  in  manufactures,  creates 
habits  which  impair  its  power. 

Although  the  ordinary  practice  of  teaching  has 
not  hitherto  favored  the  publication  of  works  in 
two  languages,  there  are,  nevertheless,  a  suffi- 
cient number  in  English  and  in  French  to  initiate 
learners  of  either  nation  in  the  art  of  reading  the 
language  of  the  other.  Dialogues  and  collections 
of  phrases  in  the  two  languages  might  even  be 
used  for  this  purpose  in  the  absence  of  the  books 
recommended. 

"When,  with  the  aid  of  three  or  four  of  these 
works,  the  student  has  become  familiar  with  a 
large  portion  of  the  foreign  phraseology,  if  not  yet 
able  to  dispense  altogether  with  assistance,  he  may 
have  recourse  to  books  in  which  the  more  difficult 
expressions  are  explained  in  notes  at  the  foot  of 
the  page.  Several  works  of  this  kind  may  be  ob- 
tained for  the  French  and  the  English  languages. 

Interlinear  translations — among  the  advocates 


60  THE  STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

of  which  may  be  mentioned  the  great  scholars  of 
Port-Royal,  Dumarsais,  Beauzee,  Radonvilliers, 
Condillac,  D'Alembert,  and  Locke — certainly 
render  an  important  service,  as  auxiliaries  in 
reading;  we  therefore  do  not  absolutely  reject 
them,  especially  if  they  are  accompanied  by  a 
free  translation.  But,  as  they  make  the  words 
subservient  to  the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  in  op- 
position to  the  principle  we  have  laid  down,  we 
prefer  interpretation  on  the  page  opposite  to  the 
foreign  text,  which  explains  its  phraseology.  In- 
terlinear translations,  in  addition  to  the  confusion 
for  the  eye,  arising  from  the  jumbling  together  of 
the  two  languages,  are  a  constant  cause  of  per- 
plexity from  the  difference  of  their  construction, 
and  the  more  so,  when  the  words,  as  it  often  hap- 
pens, are  always  translated  the  same  way,  what- 
ever be  their  meaning  in  the  text. 

As  the  student  advances  in  the  comprehension 
of  the  foreign  text,  he  will  naturally  notice  the 
words  which  the  phrases  have  in  common,  and 
will  the  more  readily  apprehend  their  precise 
import,  in  proportion  as  they  often  recur  and  in 
different  circumstances.  Not  only  the  words, 
but  their  prefixes  and  affixes,  as  well  as  their  in- 
flections, will  bo  explained   one   by   the  other. 


THE   ART   OF   READING.  61 

When,  at  a  later  period,  having  laid  aside  the 
initiatory  books,  he  meets  with  new  words, 
their  points  of  resemblance,  to  those  he  already 
knows,  their  roots  or  their  terminations,  the  place 
they  occupy  or  the  circumstance  that  introduces 
them,  will  be  so  many  data  to  lead  him  by  induc- 
tion to  an  inference  a3  to  their  meaning.  Not 
only  would  this  investigation  be  favorable  to 
mental  discipline,  but  the  information  thus  gain- 
ed, would  be  more  indelibly  impressed  on  the 
mind,  precisely  because  it  had  been  discovered  by 
mental  efforts. 

If,  on  thus  appealing  to  his  judgment,  he  does 
not  succeed  in  discovering  their  import,  he  can 
then  have  recourse  to  a  dictionary ;  and,  in  this 
case,  to  arrive  the  sooner  at  direct  reading,  we 
should  give  the  preference  to  a  dictionary,  exclu- 
sively in  the  language  he  is  learning,  which,  as  it 
presents  the  definitions  of  the  words,  is  less  likely 
to  lead  him  astray  than  a  dictionary  in  the  two 
languages,  which  often  presents  by  translation 
only  an  approximative  sense. 

"We  gain  the  knowledge  of  native  words  by 
instinctive  analysis.  .  The  first  sentence  we  hear 
conveys  to  the  mind  an  indistinct  notion  of  the 
meaning  of  a  word,  the  second  makes  this  notion 


62  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

some  what  clearer,  a  third  and  a  fourth  render 
conjecture  still  more  definite,  until  at  length,  a 
last  induction  removes  all  doubts  as  regards  the 
idea  to  be  attached  to  it.  In  this  manner  we 
come,  by  almost  imperceptible  steps,  to  know  the 
precise  meaning  of  a  considerable  number  of  ab- 
stract terms,  which  no  definitions  could  ever  make 
us  understand. 

Nearly  all  the  words  that  we  know  in  our 
own  language,  have  been  divined  in  this  man- 
ner. This  is  a  mental  operation  far  superior  to 
reliance  on  a  dictionary,  which  is,  after  all,  a 
mere  mechanical  operation.  "What  is  discovered 
by  mental  effort,  is  more  thoroughly  known  and 
better  retained  than  what  is  learned  from  a  book 
or  from  a  teacher. 

Three  months  ought  to  suffice,  without  any 
very  great  labor,  to  read  five  or  six  small  volumes, 
and  even  to  read  them  twice  over.  Then,  as 
greater  facilities  in  reading  make  it  a  more  at- 
tractive occupation,  the  student  will  read  more, 
and  will  advance  toward  perfection  with  rapid 
strides. 

These  results,  due  to  the  diligence  of  self-taught 
learners,  cannot,  however,  be  expected  from  chil- 
dren whose  age  requires  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 


THE   ART   OF   BEADING.  bd 

Their  advancement  in  reading  depends  on  the 
time  he  devotes  to  them,  and  will  necessarily  be 
slow,  especially  when,  as  in  public  schools,  only 
two  or  three  hours  a  week  are  allotted  to  the 
teaching  of  the  living  languages. 

It  is  incumbent  on  learners  to  finish  a  work 
once  begun ;  let  the  instructor  recommend  none 
but  such  as  are  worthy  of  being  read  entirely. 
Much  of  the  interest  and  profit  is  lost,  when 
books  are  but  partially  read.  The  second  part  of 
a  work  generally  indemnifies  us  for  the  trouble 
we  have  had  in  reading  the  first.  As  we  advance 
in  a  volume  we  become  acquainted  with  the 
author's  peculiarities  of  style,  and  our  minds  are 
gradually  identified  with  his.  Perseverance  in 
completing  the  work,  necessarily  brings  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  words  and  phraseology,  and  thus 
engraves  them  in  the  memory.  The  comparative 
facility  also  with  which  the  latter  part  is  read  is 
a  source  of  pleasure,  and  a  manifest  indication  of 
improvement ;  it  is  unreasonable  to  deprive  stu- 
dents, as  is  often  done,  of  this  gratification,  of  this 
stimulus  to  further  exertion,  by  making  them 
read  only  portions  of  works.  More  unreasonable 
still  is  it  to  expect  that  learners  can  become  con- 
versant with  the  literature  of  a  country  by  the 


64  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

study  of  extracts  from  various  authors,  however 
judicious  their  selection. 

The  merit  of  a  good  book,  moreover,  does  not 
depend  exclusively  on  minute  details  of  style ;  it 
also  consists  in  the  end  which  the  author  had  in 
view,  in  the  conception  of  the  general  plan,  and 
in  the  harmony  of  all  its  parts. 

"  If  a  book  be  worth  reading  once,"  says  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  "  it  should  be  read  twice."  We 
will  add,  if,  at  an  advanced  stage,  it  is  not  worth 
reading  twice,  it  ought  not  to  be  read  at  all.  A 
second  reading  is  indispensable  both  for  advan- 
cing in  the  art  of  reading,  and  for  retaining  the 
materials  of  conversation.  It  is  indeed  impossi- 
ble, on  the  first  reading  of  a  book,  to  perceive  all 
its  force  and  propriety  of  expression,  or  even  to 
attend  to  the  orthography  or  arrangement  of  the 
words,  the  attention  being  then  engaged  by  the 
effort  required  for  understanding  the  text. 

On  a  second  or  third  perusal,  familiarity  with 
the  matter  and  the  rapid  association  of  expressions 
and  ideas,  enable  the  reader  to  divide  his  atten- 
tion and  bestow  part  of  it  on  the  composition  of 
words,  their  fitness,  and  their  arrangement.  Some 
read  much,  who  yet  write  very  incorrectly  ;  be- 
cause they  attend  exclusively  to  the  subject,  and 


THE   AST   OF  BEADING.  65 

never  bestow  a  thought  on  the  form  of  language. 
If  the  course  we  suggest  be  adopted,  orthography, 
in  particular,  will  present  no  difficulty ;  the  fre- 
quent recurrence  of  the  same  words  in  reading 
will  render  the  eye  an  instinctive  judge  in  spell- 
ing, as  is  the  educated  ear  in  pronunciation. 

The  impressions  which  are  made  by  the  first 
acquaintance  with  standard  works  are  usually 
confused ;  it  is  only  on  closer  acquaintance  with 
them  that  the  mind  acquires  the  power  of  perceiv- 
ing the  connection  of  the  parts,  the  character  of 
the  whole,  the  suitableness  of  the  style  to  the 
thoughts,  and  all  the  beauties  of  composition,  as 
well  as  the  inaccuracies  which  have  escaped  the 
author.  The  repeated  perusal  of  a  work  furnishes 
the  surest  means  by  which  its  literary  merit  can 
be  tested ;  for  productions  of  sterling  worth  aiford 
new  pleasures,  and  unfold  new  beauties  at  each 
successive  reading;  whilst  those  of  inferior  char- 
acter scarcely  bear  a  second  perusal ;  they  exhibit 
more  imperfections,  according  as  they  are  more 
frequently  or  attentively  read. 

If  a  person,  when  reading  alone,  meets  with 
passages  he  does  not  clearly  understand,  and  can- 
not, at  the  moment,  obtain  the  explanations  he 
needs,  let  him  mark  them  with  pencil  in  the  mar- 


66  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

gin,  he  will  generally  find  that  all  the  difficulties 
disappear  on  a  second  reading  of  the  volume: 
such  is  the  fruit  of  practice. 

Eepetition  is  the  grand  principle  on  which  de- 
pends the  efficacy  of  the  processes  required  for 
gaining  a  practical  knowledge  of  a  language.  To 
impart  to  the  intellectual  powers  a  certain  free- 
dom of  action,  repetition  is  as  necessary  as  exer- 
cise to  the  limbs.  Six  months  of  continuous  ap- 
plication will  lead  to  greater  proficiency  than 
twelve  months  of  lessons  with  frequent  interrup- 
tions. Habits  of  language  can  be  created  only 
by  keeping  the  same  words  and  phrases  in  rapid 
succession  before  the  mind :  the  same  number  of 
impressions  which,  when  closely  following  each 
other,  produce  a  habit,  would  fail  to  do  so,  if  sepa- 
rated by  long  intervals. 

The  reading  of  the  great  writers  should  be  de- 
ferred until  it  can  be  effected  without  the  medium 
of  translation.  It  is  only  by  direct  reading  that 
the  mind,  free  from  considerations  apart  from  the 
subject,  can  enter  fully  into  the  author's  meaning. 
Neither  scientific  nor  philosophical  works  can  be 
studied  with  the  same  advantage  by  translating  as 
by  direct  reading.  A  search  after  the  native  ex- 
pressions corresponding  to  those  of  the  original 


THE  ART   OF   BEADING.  67 

breaks  in  constantly  upon  the  connection  of  the 
subject;  and  the  mind,  thus  diverted,  cannot 
easily  follow  a  train  of  close  reasoning. 

The  qualities  of  style  which  constitute  the 
chief  merit  of  works  of  imagination  are  entirely 
lost  by  an  extempore  translation  in  which  the 
form  is  necessarily  neglected  for  the  substance, 
the  mind  being  exclusively  engaged  in  rendering 
the  identical  ideas  of  the  foreign  text ;  poetry,  es- 
pecially, cannot  be  read  through  translation.  All 
that  constitutes  its  beauty,  its  merit,  disappears  in 
passing  into  the  prose  of  another  language. 

No  two  languages  correspond  word  for  word, 
phrase  for  phrase :  they  all  differ  in  their  genius. 
Each  has  numerous  expressions  without  equiva- 
lents in  another,  and  consequently  ideas  which 
cannot  be  exactly  represented  in  the  latter. 
Hence,  the  scarcity  of  faithful  translations. 
There  is  some  truth  in  the  Italian  proverb, 
"Traduttore  traditore."  "Next  to  a  good 
tragedy,"  says  Yoltaire,  "nothing  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  write  than  a  good  translation."  "  Of  all 
books,"  says  also  Lamartine,  "  the  most  difficult 
to  be  written  is,  in  my  opinion,  a  translation." 

The  best  of  them,  those  which  are  made  by 
eminent  writers,  and  meditated  in  the  silence  op 


68  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

the  closet,  are,  for  the  most  part,  but  imperfect 
copies  of  the  master-pieces  which  they  are  in- 
tended to  represent.  What  must  be  the  extern 
pore  translation  of  students,  who  as  yet  do  not 
know  the  foreign  language,  and  frequently  are  only 
smatterers  in  their  own  ?  "When  the  reading  of 
the  foreign  language  is  the  only  object  pro- 
posed, it  is  a  waste  of  time  and  useless  trouble  to 
polish  the  phraseology  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  original  text.  If  the  latter  is  understood,  the 
end  is  gained.  "What  signifies  the  manner  of  ex- 
pressing the  same  ideas  in  a  second  language? 
We  will  even  go  further;  it  is  not  the  translation 
which  leads  to  the  exact  sense  of  the  foreign  text, 
but  the  clear  understanding  of  that  text,  which 
secures  the  means  of  translating  it  properly. 

With  regard  to  irregularities  of  construction 
in  idiomatic  phrases,  the  student  will  do  well  to 
be  satisfied  with  the  interpretation  of  his  text,  as 
given  by  a  good  translation.  Much  must  at  first 
be  taken  lor  granted,  consistently  with  that  vital 
principle,  "practice  before  theory."  Inquiring 
into  the  reasons  of  the  peculiarities  of  a  foreign 
idiom  only  impedes  progress  through  the  book 
without  making  it  more  intelligible.  Let  the 
reader  reflect  that,  in  his  own  language,  he  can 


THE  AET   OF  BEADING.  69 

seldom  solve  difficulties  of  this  sort :  he  could  not 
account  for  innumerable  anomalies  and  idiomatic 
forms;  although,  in  common  practice,  he  would 
properly  apply  every  expression,  and  would  never 
hesitate  about  their  signification.  Few  English 
persons,  for  example,  even  among  the  well-edu- 
cated, know  or  care  to  know  the  reasons  of  the 
following  deviations  from  grammar  or  from  the 
proper  meaning  of  words :  two  dozen ;  a  few 
salmon  /  a  brace  of  snipe,  of  partridge,  etc.  / 
many  a  day  /  now-a-days  /  meihinks  /  would  1 
were  there  now  /  were  I  to  put  up  with  it ;  I  had 
rather  stay  /  you  had  better  be  off  ;  and  a  thou- 
sand other  equally  odd  expressions  in  daily  use. 
The  case  is  just  the  same  with  the  idioms  of  other 
languages. 

The  chief  obstacle  which  translation  opposes 
to  the  complete  possession  of  the  foreign  lan- 
guage, is  owing  to  the  fact  that,  being  placed  be- 
tween the  foreign  expression  and  the  thought,  it 
prevents  their  direct  association,  and  consequently 
the  instantaneous  suggestion  of  one  by  the  other. 
To  be  conscious  of  a  sensation  and  retain  it,  the 
attention  must  be  directed  simultaneously,  with 
the  action  of  the  organ,  on  the  object  of  sensation. 
In  translation  the  foreign  text,  it  is  true,  is  before 


68  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

the  closet,  are,  for  the  most  part,  but  imperfect 
copies  of  the  master-pieces  which  they  are  in- 
tended to  represent.  "What  must  be  the  extern 
pore  translation  of  students,  who  as  yet  do  not 
know  the  foreign  language,  and  frequently  are  only 
smatterers  in  their  own  ?  "When  the  reading  of 
the  foreign  language  is  the  only  object  pro- 
posed, it  is  a  waste  of  time  and  useless  trouble  to 
polish  the  phraseology  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  original  text.  If  the  latter  is  understood,  the 
end  is  gained.  "What  signifies  the  manner  of  ex- 
pressing the  same  ideas  in  a  second  language? 
"We  will  even  go  further;  it  is  not  the  translation 
which  leads  to  the  exact  sense  of  the  foreign  text, 
but  the  clear  understanding  of  that  text,  which 
secures  the  means  of  translating  it  properly. 

"With  regard  to  irregularities  of  construction 
in  idiomatic  phrases,  the  student  will  do  well  to 
be  satisfied  with  the  interpretation  of  his  text,  as 
given  by  a  good  translation.  Much  must  at  first 
be  taken  tor  granted,  consistently  with  that  vital 
principle,  "practice  before  theory."  Inquiring 
into  the  reasons  of  the  peculiarities  of  a  foreign 
idiom  only  impedes  progress  through  the  book 
without  making  it  more  intelligible.  Let  the 
reader  reflect  that,  in  his  own  language,  he  can 


THE   ART  OF  READING.  69 

seldom  solve  difficulties  of  this  sort :  he  could  not 
account  for  innumerable  anomalies  and  idiomatic 
forms;  although,  in  common  practice,  he  would 
properly  apply  every  expression,  and  would  never 
hesitate  about  their  signification.  Few  English 
persons,  for  example,  even  among  the  well-edu- 
cated, know  or  care  to  know  the  reasons  of  the 
following  deviations  from  grammar  or  from  the 
proper  meaning  of  words :  two  dozen ;  a  few 
salmon  /  a  brace  of  snipe,  of  partridge,  etc.  / 
many  a  day  /  now-a-days  /  meihinks  /  would  1 
were  there  now  /  were  I  to  put  up  with  it  /  I  had 
rather  stay  /  you  had  better  be  off ;  and  a  thou- 
sand other  equally  odd  expressions  in  daily  use. 
The  case  is  just  the  same  with  the  idioms  of  other 
languages. 

The  chief  obstacle  which  translation  opposes 
to  the  complete  possession  of  the  foreign  lan- 
guage, is  owing  to  the  fact  that,  being  placed  be- 
tween the  foreign  expression  and  the  thought,  it 
prevents  their  direct  association,  and  consequently 
the  instantaneous  suggestion  of  one  by  the  other. 
To  be  conscious  of  a  sensation  and  retain  it,  the 
attention  must  be  directed  simultaneously,  with 
the  action  of  the  organ,  on  the  object  of  sensation. 
In  translation  the  foreign  text,  it  is  true,  is  before 


70  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

the  eye,  but  the  learner's  whole  attention  is  given 
to  the  forms  of  the  language  into  which  he  trans- 
lates; the  translator  thinks  in  the  language  in 
which  he  has  embodied  the  thought,  and  so  the 
foreign  expression  leaves  no  trace  in  his  mind. 
This  process,  the  one  usually  insisted  on,  engen- 
ders a  habit  which  excludes  the  possibility  of 
thinking  in  that  language  and  retaining  its  phrase- 
ology. Here  we  find  an  additional  reason  for  dis- 
pensing with  the  services  of  a  master  in  this  first 
stage  of  the  study,  since  he  cannot  assist  his  pupils 
in  understanding  a  foreign  author,  save  through 
translation. 

The  oral  translation  of  several  volumes  having 
familiarized  the  student  with  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  vocabulary  and  idiomatic  phraseology 
of  the  foreign  language,  he  will  drop  the  practice 
of  translating,  in  order  to  take  in  the  ideas  directly 
from  the  author.  A  few  efforts  in  this  direction 
will  rid  him  altogether  of  this  inefficient  process, 
and  enable  him  to  follow  the  ideas  in  the 
text  itself— the  first  step  in  the  art  of  think- 
ing in  the  language.  It  is  especially  on  the  sec- 
ond perusal  of  a  book,  or  of  passages  of  a  book, 
that  he  must  make  his  d6but  in  direct  reading,  on 
account  of  the  facilities  offered  by  his  knowledge 


THE  AET  OP  READING.  71 

of  the  text.  After  a  few  days'  practice  tie  will 
find  that  it  is  far  easier  to  follow  the  thought  of 
an  author  directly  than  to  translate. 

Until  now  pronunciation  has  been  set  aside,  as 
affording  no  aid  toward  the  signification  of  words, 
the  reverse  of  what  happens  in  the  native  idiom, 
which  is  acquired  by  the  immediate  association 
of  the  sense  with  the  sound,  and  in  which  the 
written  word  is  intelligible,  only  inasmuch  as  it 
recalls  to  the  reader  a  known  articulate  word. 
Before  the  foreign  words  had  been  frequently 
heard,  bad  habits  of  pronunciation  would  be  con- 
tracted, if  a  student  gave  utterance  to  them  as  he 
reads.  The  time  given  to  the  practice,  if  he 
aimed  at  a  correct  enunciation,  would  be  lost  for 
his  advancement  in  the  comprehension  of  books. 
Signification,  not  pronunciation,  is  the  first  step 
to  be  made  in  the  study  of  a  language. 

Three  things  are  to  be  considered  in  a  word, 
the  written  form,  the  articulate  sotind,  and 
the  idea;  the  written  form  is  the  sign  of  the 
articulate  sound,  as  the  articulate  sound  is  the 
sign  of  the  idea.  Eow,  the  sign  cannot  be  an  ob- 
ject of  consideration,  unless  the  thing  signified  be 
present  to  the  mind;  we  must,  therefore,  be 
thoroughly  impressed  with  the  ideas  before   at- 


72  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

tending  to  the  articulate  sounds  which  represent 
them,  and  must  be  acquainted  with  the  sounds, 
before  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  letters. 

He  who  is  denied  the  benefit  of  a  teacher's  as- 
sistance, contents  himself  with  pronouncing  in  his 
own  language  the  expressions  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  foreign  text,  and  thereby  guards 
against  a  false  pronunciation.  But,  when  famil- 
iarized with  the  sense  of  the  foreign  words,  the 
sounds  of  which  he  does  not  know,  he  wishes  to 
practise  direct  reading,  the  surest  means  of  suc- 
cess will  be,  as  he  peruses  the  text,  to  utter  the 
words  mentally  in  the  manner  recommended  at 
page  46.  The  mind  thus  engaged  will  be  diverted 
from  translation.  Defective  as  is  this  mental 
pronunciation,  the  vocal  organs  not  being  engaged 
in  producing  it,  no  bad  habit  is  contracted,  and 
the  self-imposed  error  will  rapidly  vanish  under 
the  reiterated  impressions  of  the  true  pronun- 
ciation, when  circumstances  are  favorable  for 
acquiring  it. 

Should  the  learner  have  the  benefit  of  a 
teacher,  he  will  master  the  pronunciation  in  time 
to  apply  it  to  direct  reading,  if,  by  the  exercises 
which  we  shall  hereafter  describe,  his  progress 
in   that   art  has   kept   pace   with   his    advance 


THE  ART    OF  READING.  73 

in  the  understanding  of  the  written  language, 
When  he  is  master  of  the  pronunciation  he  will 
always  attach  it  to  the  text,  and  will  thus  make 
it  the  immediate  expression  of  his  thought.  The 
pronunciation  of  the  words  in  a  low  voice,  while 
the  mind  attends  to  the  subject,  will  form  the  or- 
gans to  habits  that  will  aid  considerably  in  using 
correct  language  afterward. 

Direct  reading  must  be  diligently  practised,  in 
the  absence  of  the  professor,  throughout  the  course. 
It  is  impossible  to  become  familiar  with  all  the 
words  and  the  phraseology  of  a  language,  in  fine, 
to  understand  it  like  one's  own,  except  by  the 
constant  and  studious  reading  of  good  writers  in 
prose  and  verse  on  a  variety  of  subjects.  Such  is 
the  true,  the  only  way  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  literature  of  a  country  and  the  genius  of 
its  language.  To  know  a  language,  observes  the 
learned  orientalist,  Sir  William  Jones,  "  we  must 
read  an  infinite  number  of  works  written  in  it." 

Of  the  50,000  words,  or  thereabout,  comprised 
in  the  vocabulary  of  a  modern  language,  there  are 
at  least  20,000  which  should  be  recognizable  by 
the  eye  and  ear,  as  coming  within  an  extensive 
practice  in  reading  or  hearing,  while  10  or  12,000 
ought  to  be  known  so  as  to  be  readily  suggested 


74  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

for  the  expression  of  thought  in  all  the  circum- 
stances of  life.  It  is  obvious  that  this  twofold 
object  can  be  attained  only  by  a  course  of  diversi- 
fied reading,  embracing  all  the  subjects  on  which 
we  may  have  occasion  to  converse  in  society. 

We  do  not  speak  here  of  the  exchange  of  ideas 
which  may  take  place  in  the  occasional  inter- 
course with  foreigners  whom  chance  brings  in  our 
way :  a  few  words  will  suffice  for  this  object. 
We  have  considered  it  our  duty  to  show  the  way 
to  perfection :  every  one  is  at  liberty  to  stop  when 
his  object  is  attained. 

In  addition  to  the  difficulty  of  attaining  the 
ready  use  of  so  great  a  number  of  words,  we 
must  not  forget  that  most  of  them  are  taken  in 
different  acceptations,  a  fact  which  imposes  a  fur- 
ther task  on  the  memory,  and  renders  extensive 
reading  still  more  necessary.  Nothing  but  long 
practice  can  briDg  under  the  reader's  notice  all 
the  idiomatic  combinations,  all  the  circumstances 
which  illustrate  these  changes  of  meaning.  The 
more  extensive  and  varied  the  student's  reading, 
the  more  copious  will  be  his  vocabulary,  and  the 
better  will  he  understand  the  words  in  their  vari- 
ous acceptations. 

It  is  in  order  to  gain  familiarity  with   tho 


THE  AET   OF   BEADING.  75 

idioms  especially — a  very  numerous  class  of  ex- 
pressions not  accessible  through  rules — that  we 
must  have  recourse  to  the  extensive  reading  of 
popular  works  in  the  ab'sence  of  social  intercourse 
with  foreigners. 

The  memory  is  enriched  by  the  repetition  at- 
tending long  practice,  and  the  elements  of  dis- 
course, thus  associated  with  ideas  in  the  mind, 
constitute  the  first  condition  for  speaking  a  lan- 
guage, as  well  as  for  entering  into  the  spirit  of  its 
writers.  The  power  of  this  association  is  such, 
that  he  who  should  practise  it  with  perseverance, 
especially  in  his  native  tongue,  by  uttering  the 
language  of  good  writers  as  he  reads  them,  could 
not  fail  to  possess  a  rich  stock  of  ideas  with  a 
great  facility  in  extempore  speaking.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  many  good  public  speakers 
have  been  indebted  for  their  success  to  this  mode 
of  self-training. 

Considered  as  the  means  of  fixing  the  elements 
of  speech  in  the  memory,  reading  is  indisputably 
efficacious,  even  in  the  native  idiom ;  though,  in 
this  case,  the  habit  of  familiar  and  sometimes 
trivial  language  is  an  obstacle  to  the  impressions 
received  in  reading  well-written  works.  In  fact, 
great  precision  of  expression  is  only  to  be  attained 


76 


THE   STUpY   OF   LANGUAGES. 


by  the  reading  and  imitating  of  good  writers ; 
for,  in  books  alone,  do  we  find  the  well-chosen 
terms  and  the  forms  which  characterize  a  noble 
and  graceful  style.  The  influence  of  books  is 
more  decidedly  felt  in  a  second  language;  be- 
cause the  expressions  of  the  foreign  author  are 
not  exposed  to  the  antagonism  of  others  already 
known;  they  strike  the  mind  with  all  the  force 
of  first  impressions.  Even  those  who  learn  a  lan- 
guage solely  with  a  view  to  speaking  it,  ought  to 
read  a  great  deal.  In  order  to  be  conversant  with 
all  the  resources  of  reason  and  language,  we  must 
necessarily  seek  them  in  many  books. 

The  practice  of  reading,  by  exercising  curi- 
osity, multiplies  its  energy,  and  people  desire  to 
read,  in  proportion  as  they  have  formed  the  habit 
of  reading.  In  accordance  with  this  desire  they 
can  always  procure  books,  and  thus  retain  the  art 
of  reading  to  the  end  of  a  long  life;  whereas 
the  double  talent  of  speaking  and  writing  a 
foreign  language  is  very  soon  lost  for  want  of 
practice. 

The  art  of  reading  foreign  languages,  if  gen- 
erally cultivated  throughout  the  civilized  world, 
would  greatly  facilitate  international  relations: 
every  one  writing  in  his  own  language  would 


THE  ART   OF  READING.  77 

then  be  understood  abroad.  Diplomatists,  scientific 
men,  and  merchants,  especially,  would  derive  in- 
calculable advantages  from  this  attainment ;  they 
would  cease  to  be  dependent  "On  interpreters  and 
clerks,  who  often  write  so  inaccurately  as  greatly 
to  perplex  their  correspondents.  International 
communication  has,  until  this  time,  been  much 
impeded  by  the  extreme  difficulty  of  writing  a 
foreign  language.  Yery  seldom  could  a  person 
be  sure  of  conveying  his  meaning  in  it,  with  as 
much  clearness  and  precision  as  in  his  own  ;  and 
if  lie  had  correspondents  in  various  countries,  it 
is  more  probable  that  they  could  read  his  language 
than  that  he  could  write  their  different  idioms  so 
as  to  be  perfectly  understood.* 

*  A  student  might  sometimes  be  impeded  in  his  progress  tow- 
ard perfection  in  the  art  of  reading,  by  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
all  the  books  indispensable  to  an  extensive  course.  Every  obstacle 
of  this  kind  would  be  removed,  if  the  professor  would  collect  a 
small  library  composed  exclusively  of  good  works  in  the  language 
which  he  teaches,  with  and  without  the  interpretation  of  the  text, 
and  furnish  them  to  his  pupils  for  a  small  quarterly  payment ;  he 
would  thus  have  the  means  of  directing  them  in  the  choice  of 
books  best  suited  for  their  use. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE     ART     OF     HEARING. 


"It  is  an  error  to  believe  that  study  and  practice  are  not  as  neces- 
sary for  hearing  as  for  speaking." 

Plutabch. 


The  advantages  arising  from  social  intercourse 
consist  more  in  receiving  than  in  communicating 
ideas.  Hearing  is  truly  the  better  half  of  conver- 
sation :  it  is,  in  every  respect,  incomparably  more 
useful  than  speaking.  Like  reading,  it  satisfies 
instinctive  inquisitiveness,  one  of  the  principles 
of  human  perfectibility. 

If  we  perfectly  understand  what  is  said,  a  few 
words,  a  monosyllable,  even  the  slightest  motion 
of  assent  or  dissent,  will  suffice  to  keep  up  conver- 
sation or  transact  business.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
we  do  not  clearly  comprehend  the  person  who 
addresses  us,  all  the  command  of  language  which 
we  may  possess  will  be  unavailable  for  social  in- 
tercourse :  hence  hearing  may  be  useful  -inde- 
pendently of  speaking ;  whereas  speaking  is  use- 


THE  ART   OF   HEARING.  79 

less  without  hearing.  It  is  always  more  profitable 
and  less  dangerous  to  listen  than  to  speak. 

Especially  when  we  are  in  a  foreign  country 
for  the  first  time,  every  thing  is  matter  of  curi- 
osity :  we  have  a  great  deal  of  local  information 
to  gain  from  its  inhabitants,  a  thousand  oppor- 
tunities of  hearing  their  language,  and  compara- 
tively very  little  to  say.  If  a  person  understands 
the  spoken  language  of  the  country  which  he 
visits,  he  is  enabled,  from  the  moment  of  his  ar- 
rival, not  only  to  enjoy  the  society  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, but  also  to  improve  in  speaking ;  for  words 
and  entire  phrases  are  easily  retained,  when  the 
ear  distinctly  catches  and  the  mind  clearly  appre- 
hends them.  In  the  absence  of  this  faculty,  he 
remains  isolated  in  the  midst  of  his  fellow-men, 
and  even  keeps  away  from  their  society,  in  the 
dread  of  exhibiting  his  ignorance.  So  that  he 
derives  neither  profit  nor  pleasure  from  a  resi- 
dence abroad ;  and  he  might  be  years  in  the 
country  without  being  able  to  speak  its  language. 
"  He  that  travelleth  in  a  foreign  country,"  says 
Lord  Bacon,  "  before  he  hath  some  entrance  into 
the  language,  goeth  to  school,  not  to  travel." 

The  comprehension  of  the  spoken  language, 
although  the  most  important  element  of  our  social 


80  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

relations,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  natural 
and  most  certain  means  of  learning  to  speak,  has, 
nevertheless,  been  so  far  neglected  in  the  teaching 
of  foreign  languages,  that  there  is  not  even  a 
term  by  which  to  express  it ;  and,  for  the  purpose 
of  classification,  we  have  been  under  the  neces- 
sity of  attaching  this  new  acceptation  to  the  words 
hearing  and  audition. 

Many  persons  do  not  even  suspect  this  power 
to  be  an  art;  for  they  have  no  recollection  of 
having  ever  learned  it  in  their  own  language,  so 
easy  does  nature  make  its  acquisition  at  the  en- 
trance into  life.  The  capability  to  speak  implies, 
in  the  vernacular  language,  that  of  hearing, 
which,  by  the  force  of  imitation,  gave  it  birth. 
This  is  not  the  case  with  languages  learned  from 
books. 

The  difficulty  generally  experienced  in  under- 
standing oral  expression  is  not  inherent  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  art :  a  child  sixteen  or  eighteen  months 
old  is  already  a  proficient  in  it,  though  he  would 
be  utterly  incapable  of  improvement  in  any  other 
department  of  language.  The  difliculty  may 
fairly  be  attributed  to  the  methods  of  teaching 
hitherto  followed ;  they  leave  the  organ  of  hear- 
ing in  complete  inaction ;  or  only  exercise  it  on 


THE   ART   OF   HEARING.  81 

detached  words  and  phrases.  The  ear  untaught 
by  the  teacher's  voice,  cannot,  in  the  usual  rapid- 
ity of  speech,  recognize  the  foreign  words,  how- 
ever familiar  they  may  be  to  the  eye.  The  learn- 
ers are  exercised  in  hearing  only  in  conversation, 
when  they  begin  to  speak.  This  is  putting  the 
cart  before  the  horse,  since  we  cannot  join  in  con- 
versation, unless  we  understand  what  is  said. 

This  acquisition  is  further  impeded  by  the 
learner's  not  having  previously  met  in  his  scanty 
reading  with  the  phraseology  of  those  with  whom 
he  comes  in  contact ;  while,  from  his  want  of  prac- 
tice in  hearing  the  language,  he  is  unable  to  as- 
sociate the  ideas  with  the  sounds,  and  is  then 
obliged  to  translate  what  he  hears,  an  operation 
for  which  the  rapidity  of  speech  does  not  allow 
time. 

The  prescriptions  of  the  preceding  chapter 
tend  to  remove  these  obstacles.  The  student  who 
has  followed  them,  and  made  some  advance  in  the 
art  of  reading,  will  find  himself  in  a  favorable 
position  for  advancing  in  the  second  branch. 

If  the  art  of  reading  can  be  acquired  without 
a  teacher,  it  is  otherwise  with  hearing  and  pro- 
nouncing, in  which  no  advance  can  be  made 
without  his  aid,  and  especially  without  his  pos- 


82  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

sessing  a  correct  pronunciation  and  accent.  When 
a  child  pronounces  his  own  language  incorrectly, 
it  is  the  fault  of  those  around  him;  when  the 
learner  of  a  foreign  language  pronounces  it  badly, 
it  is  the  fault  of  his  teacher. 

The  simple  and  natural  method  by  which  the 
ear  is  formed  to  the  articulate  sounds  of  the 
mother  tongue,  and  by  which  the  vocal  organs 
learn  to  reproduce  them,  is  equally  applicable  to 
a  foreign  language.  If  strictly  and  perseveringly 
followed,  it  would  enable  us  to  seize  the  meaning 
of  the  words,  and  acquire  the  foreign  pronun- 
ciation as  easily  as  our  own.  That  this  end  is  so 
seldom  attained,  only  proves  the  fallacy  of  the 
methods  pursued.  We  disdain  to  follow  the  easy 
path  which  nature  has  marked  out,  and  are  pun- 
ished by  fatigue  and  disappointment. 

The  nature  of  the  object  proposed  sufficiently 
shows  the  mode  of  procedure.  If,  in  the  absence 
of  the  master,  the  eye  is  exercised  on  orthography, 
in  his  presence  the  ear  must  be  exercised  on  pro- 
nunciation :  these  two  organs  afford  mutual  aid 
to  each  other.  Reading  and  hearing  must  be 
earned  on  simultaneously. 

A  passage  of  a  foreign  author  being  selected, 
at  every  lesson,  by  the  professor,  from  what  has 


THE  AET  OF  HEARING.  83 

previously  been  studied  by  the  learners,  he  dis- 
tinctly reads  it  aloud  in  short  phrases,  which  they 
alternately  translate  without  seeing  the  text,  and 
the  length  of  which  is  commensurate  with  their 
degree  of  advancement.  Then  the  whole  passage 
is  read  a  second  time  without  interruption,  but 
slowly  enough  to  permit  the  learner  to  translate 
mentally  as  he  proceeds. 

Being  assisted  in  these  two  exercises  in  hear- 
ing by  the  recollection  of  the  subject,  the  recent 
impression  of  which  is  still  fresh  in  their  minds, 
the  learners  will  easily  recognize  the  words  which 
are  familiar  to  the  eye.  They  may  perhaps,  at 
first,  only  make  guesses ;  but  these,  by  their  re- 
currence, will  soon  become  real  knowledge,  as 
is  the  case  with  every  thing  that  is  learned  by 
experience. 

The  association  of  the  spoken  with  the  written 
words  will  be  rapidly  effected,  because  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  are  few  in  number,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, recur  frequently;  moreover,  it  will 
take  place  naturally,  and  without  any  of  the  diffi- 
culties attending  the  illogical  process  by  which 
the  sounds  are  usually  inferred  from  the  letters  in 
teaching  the  foreign  pronunciation. 

The  professor    will    avoid    reading    isolated 


84:  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

words ;  for  their  signification,  and  especially  that 
of  homonyms,  that  is,  of  words  differing  in  mean- 
ing bnt  resembling  in  sound,  can  be  understood, 
on  being  heard,  only  from  the  sentences  in  which 
they  are  incorporated. 

If,  in  reading  to  a  class,  the  passage  selected 
be  the  last  prepared  by  the  least  advanced  learner, 
while  he  translates  it  chiefly  from  recollection, 
his  more  advanced  fellow-students,  who  may  not 
have  read  it  for  some  time  previously,  will  equally 
do  so,  owing  to  their  greater  familiarity  with  the 
language.  Thus,  all  the  members  of  the  class, 
whatever  be  their  different  degrees  of  advance- 
ment in  reading,  will  derive  equal  benefit  from 
this  exercise. 

In  this  manner  the  professor  always  has  it  in 
his  power  to  ascertain  the  diligence  of  his  pupils 
in  that  part  of  the  language  which  devolves  on 
themselves.  As  he  reads  to  them  for  translation 
the  passage  which  they  had  to  read  in  his  ab- 
sence, he  thus  examines  them  in  one  branch  while 
exercising  them  in  another ;  for  the  pronunciation 
will  not  suggest  the  sense  to  his  pupils,  unless  it 
recalls  to  their  minds  a  text  previously  studied. 
When  he  wishes  to  ascertain  the  progress 
they  have  made  in  orthography  by  due  attention 


THE   ART   OF   HEARING.  85 

to  the  written  form  of  the  foreign  text  in  pre- 
paring their  lessons,  he  will  stop  at  the  words, 
which  present  some  difficulty,  and  will  question 
them  on  their  spelling,  accompanying  this  ex- 
amination with  explanations  and  rules  which  will 
benefit  the  whole  class,  however  numerous  it  may 
be.  This  will  preclude  the  necessity  of  dictations 
and  other  orthographical  exercises,  from  which  no 
advantage  is  derived  in  proportion  to  the  time 
they  consume. 

The  reading  by  fragments  will  be  set  aside, 
and  the  second,  or  uninterrupted  reading,  con- 
tinued for  a  longer  time  at  each  sitting,  when  the 
pronunciation,  having  grown  familiar  to  the 
hearers,  does  not  call  for  great  efforts  on  their 
part,  and  thus  permits  them  to  attend  easily  to 
continuous  discourse.  The  professor  will  then 
lead  his  pupils  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
by  reading  to  them  what  they  have  not  previously 
seen ;  then,  by  a  gradually  increasing  rapidity  of 
utterance,  he  compels  them  to  associate  the  idea 
with  the  sound,  to  pass  from  translation  to  the 
direct  comprehension  of  what  is  said. 

The  art  of  following  ordinary  conversation 
presents  no  difficulty  to  a  person  able  to  under- 
stand the  language  on  hearing  it  read;  for  the 


86  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

words  used  in  the  exchange  of  ideas  are  generally 
more  familiar  than  those  which  are  found  in 
books,  the  periods  are  shorter,  and  the  same  ex- 
pressions more  frequently  repeated,  while  the  de- 
livery, more  natural,  is  accompanied  by  tones, 
looks,  and  gestures,  which  greatly  assist  the 
hearer.  The  mind  is  kept  alive  by  the  ever- 
varying  topics,  and  relieved  by  the  successive  in- 
terruptions of  colloquial  intercourse.  The  person 
spoken  to  is  also  more  attentive,  because  he  feels 
more  interested  in  what  is  personally  addressed  to 
him.  This  truth  is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the 
well-known  fact  that,  in  public  assemblies,  ex- 
temporaneous speeches  are  much  more  favorably 
received  than  written  discourses. 

The  professor  will  accustom  his  pupils  to  the 
forms  of  conversation,  by  choosing  from  the  pas- 
sages read  to  them,  the  idiomatical  expressions  in 
common  use,  modifying  them  in  the  same  manner 
as  is  done  in  familiar  intercourse.  He  may  also 
make  such  additions,  retrenchments,  substitutions, 
transpositions,  as  his  fancy  suggests,  so  as  to  change 
the  ideas  without  altering  the  essential  character- 
of  the  idiom. 

As  regards  his   readings,  he   will   gradually 
lengthen  them  and  make  them   more  rapid    in 


THE   ART   OF   HEARING.  87 

I 

proportion  as  his  pupils,  becoming  more  familiar 
with  the  pronunciation,  shall  begin  to  understand 
him  without  translating.  These  exercises  will 
soon  enable  them  to  understand  the  spoken  lan- 
guage directly,  if,  while  seizing  the  thought  it 
conveys,  they  repeat  it  mentally,  as  it  falls  from 
the  professor's  lips. 

In  the  mean  time  the  professor  will,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  following  chapter,  communicate  to 
them  his  pronunciation  and  accent,  and  the  more 
easily  in  proportion  as  he  has  trained  their  ears 
by  much  reading.  At  an  earlier  period,  exer- 
cises in  pronunciation  would  have  been  prema- 
ture :  it  has  no  foundation  to  rest  upon,  unless 
the  import  of  the  words  is  perfectly  known,  to 
which  it  is  to  be  attached.  How,  indeed,  can 
signs  be  studied,  which  do  not  suggest  the  things 
signified  % 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  imagine  that,  in  the 
study  of  a  living  language,  the  pronunciation 
should  be  taught  first.  It  does  not  in  any  way 
facilitate  the  understanding  of  the  written  words  ; 
and,  besides,  a  person  may  perfectly  understand 
what  he  hears,  without  being  able  to  pronounce 
correctly.  In  infancy  we  know  the  meaning  of 
words,  lono;  before  we  can  utter  them.     In  learn- 


88  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

ing  a  foreign  language  we  ought  also  to  under- 
stand the  spoken  words  before  attempting  to  ar- 
ticulate them. 

To  study  simultaneously  both  the  pronuncia- 
tion and  the  signification  of  words  at  the  begin- 
ning is  incompatible  with  that  law  of  our  mental 
organization,  which  forbids  attention  to  be  di- 
rected at  the  same  time  to  several  distinct  things 
when  new. 

In  the  course  of  the  exercises  in  audition,  the 
learners  should  forbear  looking  at  what  is  read  to 
them,  that  the  ideas  may  be  exclusively  received 
through  the  articulate  words,  as  when  listening 
to  a  speaker.  If  a  person  familiar  with  the 
written  language  had  his  eyes  fixed  on  the  book 
while  the  instructor  was  reading,  that  organ, 
quicker  than  the  ear  and  not  easily  controlled, 
would  not  always  patiently  accompany  the  reader 
word  for  word,  but  would  outstrip  the  ear  in  ap- 
prehending the  subject.  Sometimes  also  a  per- 
son less  advanced,  will  be  slow  in  following  the 
teacher,  or  will  stop  to  consider  the  words  which 
are  not  familiar  to  him ;  so  that,  in  either  case, 
the  learner  would  be  unmindful  of  what  is  read, 
and  the  idea  would  be  apprehended  through  the 
eye,  not  through  the  ear. 


THE   ART   OF   HEARING.  89 

The  learner  also,  occasionally  perceiving  let- 
ters which  are  not  pronounced,  would  be  apt  to 
attribute  his  not  hearing  them  to  inattention  or 
dulness  of  hearing  on  his  part,  and  might  still  be 
inclined  to  introduce  them  in  his  pronunciation 
afterward.  It  is,  therefore,  better  not  to  give  the 
eye  an  opportunity  of  leading  the  ear  astray. 
Besides,  this  dependence  on  the  sight  for  under- 
standing what  is  heard,  incapacitates  the  ear  for 
conversation,  in  which  it  can  have  no  assistance 
from  the  eye. 

By  the  reading  of  familiar  subjects,  suited  to 
the  age  and  proficiency  of  his  pupils,  the  master 
will  render  them  the  same  service  as  those  who 
initiate  us  in  childhood  in  the  knowledge  of  our 
own  language.  But  his  mode  of  reading  should 
be  made  a  perfect  fac-simile  of  that  of  speaking, 
by  a  natural  and  expressive  delivery.  Good  read- 
ing is  that  which  most  nearly  approaches  ex- 
temporized speech.  The  interest  with  which  a 
skilful  instructor  may  invest  this  exercise  by  his 
manner  of  reading  and  the  choice  of  subjects  cal- 
culated to  excite  curiosity,  will  powerfully  contrib- 
ute to  fix  the  attention  of  his  hearers.  He  may 
always  secure  this  point  by  calling  on  them,  from 


90  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

time  to  time,  to  repeat  or  translate  the  last  phrase 
he  littered. 

The  learners  must  now,  while  listening  to  the 
professor,  mentally  repeat  after  him.  This  direct 
association  of  the  ideas  with  the  sounds  is  the 
second  step  in  the  art  of  thinking  in  the  language. 
The  association  of  the  spoken  words  with  the  ideas 
which  they  represent,  offers  no  difficulty  if  the 
hearers  have  been  accustomed  to  mental  or  direct 
reading ;  for  it  is  impossible  to  follow  a  speaker 
and  think  with  his  words,  unless  the  sounds  awake 
the  ideas.  Direct  hearing  is  therefore  more  neces- 
sary than  direct  reading :  the  latter  operation  is 
optional,  the  former  is  indispensable. 

The  fact  that  persons  who,  while  able  to  read 
a  foreign  language,  are  yet  unable  to  speak  it, 
arises  in  a  great  measure  from  their  not  having 
contracted  a  habit  of  the  association  of  words 
with  ideas,  by  means  of  much  practice  in  direct 
reading  and  hearing. 

Perfection  in  audition,  which  consists  in  being 
able  to  understand  oral  discourse,  however  rapidly 
spoken,  will  be  easily  attained,  if,  by  assiduous 
study,  one  has  learned  to  read  the  foreign  like  the 
national  authors,  as  quickly  as  the  eye  runs  over 
the  text ;  for  the  organs  of  speech  utter  the  words 


THE  ART  OF   HEARING.  91 

more  slowly  than  the  eye  peruses  them.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  hearer  has  not,  like  the 
reader,  the  option  of  dwelling  on  an  expression ; 
he  must  apprehend  the  ideas  of  the  speaker  as 
they  are  delivered :  he  is  completely  at  his  mercy. 

To  reach  this  perfection,  a  sine  qua  non  in 
serious  conversation,  the  pupils  must  desire  the 
teacher  to  slacken  or  hurry  his  pace,  as  there  is 
occasion.  They  should  never  hesitate  to  inter- 
rupt him,  when  they  do  not  understand  what  he 
reads.  The  connection  of  the  ideas  will  not  suffer, 
as  after  every  interruption  the  professor  resumes 
his  reading  at  the  place  where  he  stopped.  The 
rarity  of  these  interruptions  will  be  a  sure  crite- 
rion of  the  progress  of  his  pupils. 

It  would  be  otherwise  if  the  instructor  should 
prematurely  address  them  in  the  foreign  language ; 
for  their  interruptions  would  be  so  many  obsta- 
cles to  his  treating  a  subject  connectedly.  Thus, 
thwarted  in  his  attempts,  and  frequently  losing 
the  thread  of  his  discourse,  he  would  soon  be 
compelled  to  desist;  whereas,  with  a  book,  he 
can  always  suit  the  simplicity  of  the  subject  and 
the  slowness  of  his  delivery,  to  the  inexperience 
of  his  hearers.  Moreover,  reading  renders  im- 
provement in  the  second  branch  independent  of 


VZ  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

the  oratorical  powers  of  a  teacher,  who  may  be 
very  deficient  in  this  respect,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  familiarizes  them  with  a  better  choice  of 
words,  a  more  correct  phraseology,  and  a  greater 
diversity  of  expression,  than  can  be  done  in  an 
extempore  discourse.  He  could  thus  also  store 
their  minds  with  useful  knowledge,  and  accustom 
them  to  all  styles,  to  all  modes  of  delivery,  without 
himself  possessing  any  other  talent  than  that  of 
reading. 

A  practice  no  less  injudicious  than  that  of 
prematurely  addressing  learners  at  some  length 
in  the  foreign  language,  and  one  frequently  re- 
sorted to,  although  at  variance  with  the  order  of 
nature,  is  for  the  teacher  to  draw  his  pupils  out 
into  a  conversation,  when  they  are  as  yet  unable 
to  understand  him.  None  but  commonplace 
ideas  could  be  ventured  upon,  and,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  the  attempt,  considerable  time  would 
be  lost ;  hence,  very  inadequate  practice  both  in 
hearing  and  in  speaking. 

More  objectionable  still  is  conversation  in  a 
large  class ;  for  only  a  few  of  its  members  could 
seriously  join  in  it,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  greater 
number,  who,  meanwhile,  would  remain  com- 
pletely idle.     By  reading,  on  the  contrary,  the 


THE  AET  OF   HEARING.  93 

professor  can  initiate  in  the  comprehension  of  the 
spoken  language  fifty  persons  as  easily  as  one. 
His  discourse  is  addressed  to  all,  and  profits  all. 
Those  who  have  not  had  much  practice  will  en- 
deavor to  catch  the  meaning  of  what  they  hear ; 
the  others  will  go  further,  and  their  attention  will 
embrace  both  the  pronunciation  and  the  meaning. 
In  any  case,  this  exercise  affords  in  a  given  time 
more  practice  in  hearing  than  conversation. 

Such  is  the  merit  of  this  process;  it  places 
the  acquirement  most  essential  for  the  exchange 
of  ideas  within  reach  of  those  whose  limited  re- 
sources will  not  allow  them  to  obtain  it  except  in 
large  classes.  It  is  well  known  that,  when  a 
great  number  of  persons  attend  the  same  course 
of  instruction,  all  cannot  make  the  same  progress : 
difference  in  age,  aptitude,  and  taste,  as  well  as 
in  previous  education,  and  the  time  they  have  at 
their  disposal,  will  cause  some  to  advance  more 
rapidly  than  others.  It  is  therefore  important 
that  the  method  should  provide  for  this  inequality 
among  pupils  of  the  same  class. 

As  poetry  does  not  admit  of  being  translated 
extempore,  the  reading  of  it  by  the  professor 
will,  as  it  were,  force  the  pupils  to  associate  the 
thoughts  directly  with  the   words,  and,   at  the 


94:  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

same  time,  will  be  for  them  the  best  practical 
initiation  into  the  prosody,  if  he  carefully  mark 
in  reading  the  syllabic  quantity  and  the  tonic  ac- 
cent. 

In  this,  as  in  every  other  department  of  the 
study  of  a  language,  practice  should  precede 
theory.  It  is  only  when  the  ear,  by  long  ex- 
perience, has  been  made  conscious  of  the  exist- 
ence and  nature  of  tones  and  quantity  in  syl- 
lables, that  the  mind  can  investigate  melody  and 
rhythm,  that  explanations  can  be  given  as  to 
what  constitutes  the  essence  of  verse,  and  the 
mechanism  of  the  foreign  versification. 

The  understanding  of  the  spoken  language  in 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  German,  presents  great 
facilities,  owing  to  the  correspondence  between 
the  pronunciation  and  the  orthography.  But  the 
most  difficult  of  all  languages  for  a  foreigner  to 
understand  is  perhaps  the  English,  on  account  of 
the  complete  absence  of  analogy  in  the  alphabet- 
ical representation  of  its  pronunciation,  as  well  as 
of  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  spoken  and  its  in- 
numerable contractions.* 

*  This  is  humorously  illustrated  in  the  following  anecdote :  In 
a  late  trial  before  the  Queen's  Bench,  Mr.  Hawkins,  a  barrister, 
had  frequently  to  advert  to  that  description  of  vehicle   called 


THE  ART  OF   HEAEING.  95 

Some  people  think  that  the  French  language 
is  spoken  faster  than  the  English ;  this  is  a  great 
error.  Yoltaire  shrewdly  observed,  that  an  Eng- 
lishman gains  every  day  two  hours  on  a  French- 
man in  conversation.  The  truth  is,  that  English 
is  spoken  considerably  quicker  than  French. 
This  results  from  a  difference  of  kind  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  these  languages. 

Pronunciation  is  composed  of  two  elements, 
vocal  sounds  and  articulations,  represented  in 
writing  by  vowels  and  consonants.  Yocal  sounds 
admit  of  duration:  quantity  is  their  essence. 
Yocal  articulations,  with  few  exceptions,  cannot 
be  prolonged;  instantaneity  is  their  essence. 
"When  a  consonant  is  placed  after  a  vowel,  it 
generally  shortens  it.     Thus  the  long  syllables, 

brougham,  which  he  pronounced  in  two  syllables.  Lord  Camp- 
bell, the  chief  justice,  suggested  that  the  word  was  usually  con- 
tracted to  broom,  and  that  he  had  better  adopt  the  latter  pro. 
nunciation,  as  he  would  thereby  save  one  syllable  and  gain  so 
much  time.  Henceforward  Mr.  Hawkins  called  it  broom.  Shortly 
after,  the  pleading  turned  upon  omnibuses ;  and  Lord  Campbell 
frequently  used  the  word  omnibus,  to  which  he  gave  its  due 
length.  "  I  beg  your  lordship's  pardon,"  retorted  Mr.  Hawkins, 
"  but,  if  you  will  call  it  bus,  you  will  save  two  syllables,  and  make 
it  more  intelligible  to  the  jury."  The  learned  judge  assented  to 
the  proposed  abbreviation. 


96  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

me,  we,  fie,  no,  due,  though,  become  short  by  add- 
ing consonants  to  them,  met,  web,  fib,  fit,  fig,  not, 
dun,  thought.  "Now,  in  English,  consonants  pre- 
dominate, and  usually  form  the  end  of  syllables ; 
hence  a  rapidity  of  utterance  is  the  unavoidable 
consequence. 

In  French^  on  the  contrary,  consonants  act  but 
a  secondary  part,  and  are  often  silent.  The 
spoken  words,  in  reality,  end  with  vowel-sounds, 
although  consonants  terminate  their  written  rep- 
resentatives. In  the  division  of  the  words,  con- 
sonants seldom  terminate  syllables ;  the  French 
word  caricature,  for  example,  is  divided  into  syl- 
lables thus,  ca-rf-ca-tu-re ;  its  pronunciation,  con- 
formably to  this  division,  is  necessarily  longer 
than  that  of  the  English  word,  commonly  pro- 
nounced, according  to  this  other  division,  car-ic-a- 
ture.  The  same  may  be  said  of  every  other  word 
in  the  two  languages.  The  vowels,  which  con- 
tribute so  much  to  lengthen  the  words,  are  pro- 
nounced full  in  French,  as  if  every  syllable  wero 
accented.  From  these  facts  there  necessarily  re- 
sults a  slow  and  steady  enunciation. 

As  the  opinion  of  a  foreigner,  however,  in  re- 
gard to  the  English  pronunciation,  can  have  little 
weight,  we  beg  to  quote  a  few  competent  au- 


THE  ART   OF  HEARING.  97 

thorities :  "  Such  is  the  vehemence  of  our  accent, 
that  every  syllable  which  follows  the  accented  is 
not  only  short,  but  almost  lost  in  the  pronun- 
ciation." (Lord  Monboddo.)  "We  incline,  in 
general,  to  a  short  pronunciation  of  our  words, 
and  have  shortened  the  quantity  of  most  of  those 
which  we  borrowed  from  the  Latin."  (Hugh 
Blair.)  "Such  is  the  propensity  for  dispatch 
that,  overlooking  the  majesty  of  words  composed 
of  many  syllables  aptly  connected,  the  prevailing 
taste  is  to  shorten  words,  so  as  to  make  them  dis- 
agreeable to  the  ear."  (Lord  Karnes.)  "  It  must 
be  regretted  that  contraction  subjects  our  tongue 
to  some  of  the  most  hissing,  snapping,  clashing 
sounds  that  ever  grated  the  ear  of  a  Vandal." 
(John  Walker.)  "Our  rational  conversation  is, 
for  the  most  part,  carried  on  in  a  series  of  most 
extraordinary  and  rugged  abbreviations,  a  species 
of  short-hand  talking."    (Bulwer  Lytton.) 

But,  whatever  be  the  irregularities  of  the  pro- 
nunciation or  the  rapidity  of  speech  of  a  people, 
it  is  the  business  of  learners  to  overcome  the  former, 
and  accommodate  themselves  to  the  latter.  Prac- 
tice will  suffice  to  enable  the  ear  to  distinguish 
the  most  delicate  shades  of  sound ;  and  the  pro- 
cesses   recommended    above  secure  this  object. 


98  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

The  professor  who  exercises  his  pupil  in  hear- 
ing has  this  great  advantage  over  the  mother  who 
initiates  her  child  in  this  department  of  the  lan- 
guage, that  the  person  he  addresses,  having  a 
more  mature  understanding,  must  necessarily  ap- 
prehend the  ideas  corresponding  to  the  sounds 
more  quickly  and  clearly  than  can  be  done  by  a 
young  child  through  the  language  of  action  with 
which  his  mother  accompanies  her  words.  He 
owes  his  success  to  her  admirable  patience  in  re- 
peating the  same  phrases,  always  associated  with 
that  language.  The  professor  has,  in  translation 
and  the  previous  reading  of  his  pupils,  no  less 
powerful  elements  of  success ;  and,  if  he  exercises 
the  same  patience  and  the  same  perseverance  in 
his  teaching,  he  will  obtain  the  same  results  in 
considerably  less  time. 

Perseverance  is  equally  indispensable,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  acquisition.  A  language  is,  in 
fact,  retained  not  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
perfection  attained,  but  to  the  length  of  time  it 
has  been  practised,  and  to  the  strength  of  the 
habits  contracted  by  the  ear.  The  children  who 
are  taken  abroad  lose  their  own  language  most 
rapidly,  that  is  to  say,  according  as  they  have 
heard  the  less  of  it. 


THE  AET  OF  HEAEESG.  99 

"When  the  language  is  perfectly  understood,  the 
professor  will  turn  the  proficiency  of  his  pupils  to 
account  by  always  using  it  in  speaking  to  them, 
even  before  they  themselves  speak  it.  The  con- 
stant practice  of  following  a  train  of  ideas  directly 
through  the  medium  of  words  spoken  by  a  native, 
will  render  the  audible  signs  so  familiar  as  soon 
to  secure  a  habit  of  this  mental  operation ;  and, 
this  once  attained,  it  will  cause  these  ideas,  in 
virtue  of  the  laws  of  association  and  habit,  to  be 
easily  reproduced  when  the  hearer  has  afterward 
need  to  convey  them. 

The  pronunciation,  thus  directly  associated 
with  the  thought,  and  daily  becoming  a  firmer 
habit  of  the  ear,  the  attention  may  be  directed, 
while  following  the  ideas,  to  the  articulate  sounds 
which  represent  them,  as  a  preparation  for  the 
exercises  in  speaking,  described  in  the  following 
chapter.  The  faculty  of  reproducing  the  articu- 
late sounds  of  a  language,  is  the  consequence  of 
the  frequent  impressions  made  by  them  on  the 
organ  of  hearing.  Those  are  dumb  to  whom 
nature  has  refused  the  sense  of  hearing. 

The  accent,  especially,  which  affects  the  whole 
tenor  of  discourse  and  consists  in  a  vocal  modula- 
tion peculiar  to  the  nation,  is  fostered   in   the 


100  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

hearers  by  the  reiterated  impressions  received 
from  the  foreign  teacher's  voice,  if  he  reads  as  the 
language  is  usually  spoken.  The  longer  the  ear 
is  impressed  with  the  national  accent,  the  more 
its  fibres  vibrate  in  unison  with  it,  and  the  great- 
er is  the  power  of  the  vocal  organ  to  assimilate 
with  it. 

By  the  mode  of  proceeding  which  we  have 
described  above,  a  person  possessing  the  art  of 
reading  a  foreign  language  would  be  able,  in  two 
or  three  months  at  the  most,  to  understand 
perfectly  those  who  speak  it,  if  he  had  at  his  com- 
mand a  reader,  whether  a  professor  or  not,  who 
should,  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time,  at  short  inter- 
vals, read  to  him  the  foreign 'language :  and,  if  he 
visited  the  country  where  it  is  spoken,  he  would 
have  still  greater  facilities  for  understanding  its 
inhabitants  and  adopting  their  pronunciation;  a 
servant,  a  child  even,  who  knows  how  to  read, 
could  rapidly  forward  him  in  this  twofold  ac- 
quirement. Success  is,  in  any  case,  accessible  to 
the  most  humble  fortune;  for  the  first  art  is 
learned  without  a  master,  and  the  second  requires 
his  services  only  for  a  very  short  time. 

These  two  arts  are  so  easily  and  speedily  ac- 
quired, when,  conformably  to  the  laws  of  nature 


THE   ART   OF   HEARING.  lOl 

and  of  reason,  their  study  is  freed  from  all  the 
fetters  of  routine,  that  one  might  in  less  than  six 
months  read  and  understand  French,  for  instance, 
as  well  as  a  native.  He  could  not,  however,  in  as 
many  years,  learn  to  speak  it  like  a  Frenchman. 

It  is,  therefore,  most  desirable  that,  among  all 
civilized  nations,  the  attention  of  youth  should  be 
more  particularly  directed  to  the  first  two  arts, 
which,  if  universally  diffused,  would  suffice,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  other  two,  for  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  international  exchange  of  thought. 
Persons  of  different  countries,  each  speaking  or 
writing  his  own  language,  would  understand  each 
other,  and  their  conversation  would  be  the  more 
expansive,  the  more  satisfactory  in  every  respect, 
as,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  ideas  flow  in  the 
vernacular  with  more  freedom  and  clearness  than 
in  a  foreign  idiom.  In  this  way  would  the  grand 
desideratum  of  modern  society,  international  ex- 
change of  ideas,  be  secured. 

The  reciprocal  knowledge  of  living  languages 
cannot  fail  to  extend  our  social  relations  and  to 
render  international  intercourse  more  frequent 
and  more  useful;  it  would  second  the  work  of 
civilization,  by  promoting  the  progress  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  doing  away  with  national  prejudices, 


102  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

and  drawing  closer  the  bonds  which  ought  to 
unite  all  the  members  of  the  great  human 
family. 

The  literary  and  scientific  celebrities,  who 
popularize  useful  knowledge  and  new  discoveries 
in  public  lectures,  would  be  easily  induced  to 
visit  neighboring  countries,  as  they  would  then 
have  every  opportunity  of  collecting  around  them 
numerous  hearers  able  to  understand  them.  We 
do  not,  indeed,  see  why  lecturers  should  not  be 
patronized  by  an  enlightened  public,  when  foreign 
actors  frequently  perform  to  crowded  auditories. 
Need  we  expatiate  on  the  many  advantages  which, 
in  a  moral,  intellectual,  and  social  point  of  view, 
would  accrue  to  society  from  this  exchange  of 
information  and  good  offices. 

Never  was  a  common  means  of  intellectual 
communication  more  needed  than  at  the  present 
day.  Different  communities,  despite  their  rulers, 
tend  to  fraternize  under  the  influence  of  similar 
institutions,  similar  pursuits,  and  similar  tastes. 
The  spirit  of  the  age  impels  nations  to  form 
political  and  commercial  alliances  on  all  points 
of  the  globe,  and  to  blend  themselves  into  one 
great  community.  Scientific  associations  succes- 
sively attract  to  the  great  centres  of  activity  all 


THE  ART  OF   HEAKING.  103 

the  noblest  intellects  of  the  civilized  world.  Iso- 
lated labor  is  everywhere  giving  way  to  the  spirit 
of  association ;  and  instead  of  wrapping  their  dis- 
coveries in  secrecy,  men  of  all  countries  diffuse 
them  as  means  of  universal  advancement. 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

THE     ART     OF     SPEAKING. 

•'  Ici  Implication  serait  meilleure  que  les  regies,  les  excmples  in- 
Btrniraient  mieux  que  les  preceptes."  Buffon. 

"  Here  practical  application  would  be  better  than  rules,  examples 
more  instructive  than  precepts." 

As,  iu  the  present  state  of  linguistic  education, 
the  first  two  arts,  reading  and  hearing,  are  not 
universally  diffused,  the  third,  the  art  of  speaking 
the  foreign  tongue,  becomes  invaluable  for  every 
person  who  comes  in  contact  with  foreigners  un- 
able to  understand  his  language. 

It  is  especially  the  case,  after  a  foreign  idiom 
has,  like  the  native,  become  the  direct  instrument 
of  the  mind,  that  it  promotes  intellectual  culture. 
The  exchange  of  thought  is,  in  fact,  an  essential 
element  of  improvement.  In  social  intercourse, 
when  a  diversity  of  characters  are  brought  to- 
gether, every  one  contributes  his  share  of  knowl- 
edge,  good  sense,   and  experience,  and  all  are 


THE  ART   OF   SPEAKING.  105 

gainers  to  some  extent.  If  reading  enriches  the 
mind,  conversation  polishes  and  expands  it.  In 
conversing  with  those  whose  esteem  we  covet,  or 
whom  we  would  fain  convert  to  our  own  way  of 
thinking,  the  desire  to  please,  to  persuade,  keeps 
all  the  faculties  of  the  soul  in  a  state  of  excite- 
ment, which  multiplies  the  intellectual  energies, 
and  often  leads  to  the  conception  of  ideas,  which 
would  never  have  been  evolved  in  the  solitude 
of  the  study.  It  would,  therefore,  be  wrong  to 
neglect  an  art  capable  of  producing  such  impor- 
tant results. 

By  reading  and  hearing,  the  student  familiar- 
izes himself  with  the  models ;  by  speaking  and 
writing,  he  imitates  them.  The  habit  of  receiving 
ideas  directly  from  the  words,  written  or  spoken, 
lays  the  foundation  for  rapidly  acquiring  the 
faculty  of  expressing  them  spontaneously.  The 
art  of  speaking  thus  finds  infallible  elements  of 
success  in  the  practice  of  the  first  two  arts.  But, 
without  waiting  until  perfection  is  gained  in 
these,  the  learners  will  pass  on  to  the  exercises  of 
the  third.  "With  this  view,  they  must  imitate  the 
pronunciation  of  their  professor,  and  the  phrase- 
ology of  standard  authors. 

The  task  of  the  instructor,  as  regards  pronun- 


106  THE  STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

ciation,  should  consist  less  in  correcting  his 
pupils'  errors  than  in  preventing  them  from  com- 
mitting any.  Prevention  is  better  than  cure. 
As  a  general  rule,  they  ought  never  to  pronounce 
a  word,  unless  they  have  heard  it  several  times. 
So  long  as  the  organs  do  not  practise  any  pro- 
nunciation, they  remain  ready  to  acquire  a  good 
one ;  but  a  bad  habit  once  contracted,  is  eradi- 
cated with  difficulty. 

There  will  be  no  danger  of  falling  into  a  de- 
fective pronunciation,  if,  following  the  law  of 
nature,  as  manifested  in  infancy,  the  pupil  listens 
to  his  master  a  long  time  before  attempting  to 
imitate  him.  The  exercises  of  the  preceding 
chapter,  having  formed  the  ear  to  correct  habits, 
the  vocal  organs  will  be  in  a  favorable  state  for 
giving  the  true  pronunciation.  The  vocal  faculty 
is  governed  by  the  ear ;  there  are  no  articulate 
sounds  perceptible  to  the  organ  of  hearing  which 
the  voice  cannot  produce. 

Pronunciation  is  most  commonly  taught  by 
imposing  on  a  beginner  the  oral  reading  of  the 
foreign  text,  that  is,  making  him  infer  it  from 
the  orthography — a  mode  of  proceeding  doubly 
irrational,  as  it  rejects  imitation  in  an  art  exclu- 
sively based  on  this  power,  and  as  it  implies  that 


THE  ART  OF   SPEAKING.  107 

the  thing  signified,  not  previously  known,  can  be 
learned  from  its  sign.  It  moreover  submits  the 
pronunciation  to  the  learner's  attention  without 
regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  words,  although 
their  pronunciation  often  varies  with  their  signifi- 
cation. For  instance,  the  pronunciation  of  the 
words  bow,  gill,  read,  desert,  gallant,  conjure, 
rebel,  minute,  and  many  others,  depends  on  the 
sense  in  which  they  are  taken.  It  is  the  same  in 
other  languages,  the  English,  especially,  abounds 
in  words  which  differ  in  pronunciation,  according 
to  their  meaning. 

Reason  dictates  that  the  means  should  be  con- 
sistent with  the  end ;  but  reading  aloud  is  pre- 
cisely the  reverse  of  what  takes  place  in  conver- 
sation. In  speaking,  we  pass  from  the  idea  to  the 
word ;  the  sound  suggests  the  orthography :  in 
reading,  on  the  contrary,  we  pass  from  the  word 
to  the  idea ;  the  orthography  suggests  the  sound. 
Reading  aloud  can  only  be  a  source  of  errors  for 
a  beginner.  The  correction  to  which  it  leads 
could  not  create  good  habits :  these  result  alone 
from  reiterated  correct  impressions,  such  as  arise 
from  the  processes  explained  in  the  foregoing 
chapter.  Its  proper  office  is  to  test  the  progress 
made  in  pronunciation. 


108  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

The  two  readings  by  the  master,  as  explained 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  were  intended  to  ini- 
tiate the  learners  in  the  understanding  of  the 
spoken  language,  and  to  accustom  the  ear  to  a 
good  pronunciation.  He  will  now  make  them 
enter  on  the  practice  of  the  latter  by  reading  the 
same  passages  twice  more — the  third  time  very 
slowly,  and  by  short  phrases  of  three  or  four 
words,  which  they  will  repeat  after  him  without 
looking  at  the  text,  and  in  imitation  not  only  of 
the  sounds,  prosodial  accent,  and  blending  of  the 
words,  but  also  of  the  intonation  and  inflection  of 
voice  peculiar  to  the  people. 

These  imitations  should,  as  in  acquiring  the 
native  tongue,  be  made  without  reference  to  the 
alphabetical  characters.  "Whenever  the  pupils 
fail  in  reproducing  the  exact  pronunciation  or  ac- 
centuation of  their  model,  it  is  a  proof  they  need 
to  hear  it  again.  The  professor  will,  therefore,  at 
each  failure,  utter  the  words  anew.  The  voice, 
that  docile  slave  of  the  ear,  in  order  to  echo  the 
pronunciation  faithfully,  only  needs  to  have  it 
clearly  impressed  on  this  organ. 

In  his  fourth  reading,  which  will  be  uninter- 
rupted, ho  will  set  the  example  of  a  correct  de- 
livery by  an  accentuation  conformable  to  the 


THE   AET   OF   SPEAKING.  109 

habits  of  speaking  of  well-informed  people.  His 
hearers,  previously  familiarized  with  the  spoken 
language,  having  now  heard  the  same  passage 
read  four  times  in  succession,  will  experience  no 
difficulty  in  associating  mentally  the  pronuncia- 
tion with  the  ideas. 

"When,  by  means  of  these  imitations,  a  stu- 
dent has  a  complete  mastery  of  all  the  element- 
ary sounds  of  the  foreign  language,  he  will  direct 
his  attention  to  the  alphabetical  signs  which  rep- 
resent them,  and  will  find  it  both  easy  and  inter- 
esting to  attach  to  the  written  words,  as  is  done  in 
the  maternal  idiom,  a  pronunciation  perfectly 
familiar  to  him.  He  may  then  occasionally  read 
the  same  passage  which  the  professor  has  now 
read  four  times,  and,  in  doing  so,  will  direct  his 
attention  exclusively  to  the  ideas,  in  order  to  de- 
liver the  text  naturally  and  with  the  inflections 
of  voice  required  by  the  subject.  The  pronuncia- 
tion is  not  known  until  it  has  become  so  fixed  a 
habit,  that,  in  speaking  or  reading,  it  is  produced 
spontaneously  and  without  diverting  the  mind 
from  the  thought. 

We  will  here  observe  that  these  four  readings 
are,  in  their  nature  and  effect,  precisely  identical 
with  what  takes  place,  as  already  seen,  in  the  first 


110  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

periods  of  our  apprenticeship  to  the  vernacular 
idiom.  The  child  first  seizes  on  the  ideas  with 
the  aid  of  the  language  of  action,  which  ac- 
companies the  short  phrases  addressed  to  him ;  he 
is  soon  able  without  this  assistance  to  understand 
continuous  speech  on  matters  within  the  scope  of 
his  intelligence ;  next,  he  tries  to  pronounce  the 
words  and  phrases  he  has  most  frequently  heard ; 
and,  at  last,  when,  by  speaking,  the  pronuncia- 
tion has  grown  familiar  to  him,  he  is  taught  to 
read. 

Of  the  four  readings  given  by  the  professor, 
the  first  and  third,  in  detached  phrases,  being  in- 
tended only  to  initiate  the  pupils,  the  first,  in 
comprehending,  the  third,  in  pronouncing  the 
language,  need  not  be  continued  for  any  length 
of  time.  But  consecutive  reading  will  be  perse- 
vered in,  in  order  to  confirm  the  learners  in  good 
habits  of  pronunciation :  according  to  their  prog- 
ress, this  reading  will  become  more  rapid  and  be 
continued  longer  at  a  time. 

When,  both  from  hearing  and  from  reading, 
accurate  impressions  have,  by  repetition,  grown 
familiar  to  the  mind,  any  deviation  from  them, 
which  one  may  afterward  meet,  would  strike 
as  being  incorrect.     This  consciousness  of  pro- 


THE   ABT  OF   SPEAKING.  Ill 

priety,  arising  from  the  habit  of  the  ear  or  the 
eye,  as  formed  in  good  society  or  from  good  books, 
is  a  practical  conviction,  a  true  experimental 
knowledge,  and  our  best  guide  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  Good  speakers  and  good  writers  are 
guided  by  the  ear  rather  than  by  rules. 

It  may  sometimes  be  desirable  to  commence 
the  exercises  of  pronunciation  at  an  early  period 
of  the  study.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  it,  al- 
though it  is  never  advisable  to  act  contrary  to  the 
dictates  of  nature ;  but,  at  whatever  period  they 
are  entered  upon,  it  is  indispensable  to  pronounce 
only  words  which  are  fully  understood,  and  have 
been  frequently  heard. 

In  a  language  the  orthography  of  which  faith- 
fully represents  the  pronunciation,  the  written 
and  the  articulate  words,  being  easily  inferred 
one  from  the  other,  will  not  only  render  reading 
and  hearing  mutual  auxiliaries,  but  will  enable 
the  student  to  arrive,  by  analogy,  at  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  whole  language  from  that  of  a  few 
words. 

Reading  aloud,  unavailable  in  most  languages, 
as  a  means  of  learning  pronunciation,  will  serve 
to  keep  it  up  at  a  later  period,  when  once  com- 
pletely acquired.     A  good  habit  of  pronunciation 


112  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

may  likewise  be  kept  up  by  storing  the  memory 
with  select  passages  of  prose  and  poetry.  The 
possibility  of  repeating  them  at  any  time  and  in 
any  place  offers  an  easy  means  of  obtaining  that 
correct  and  natural  enunciation  which  is  the 
crowning  perfection  in  the  pronunciation  of  a 
language. 

"When  reiterated  imitation  shall  have  enabled 
the  learners  to  reproduce  faithfully  and  naturally 
the  pronunciation  of  their  model,  that  is,  when  it 
shall  have  become  habitual  to  them — the  professor 
will  lead  them  to  another  kind  of  imitation,  that 
of  the  foreign  phraseology — an  exercise  the  easier 
as  the  attention  is  free  from  any  consideration  of 
pronunciation. 

The  arts  of  speaking  and  writing  are  acquired 
by  the  same  process  as  that  which  leads  to  excel- 
lence in  other  arts.  Imitation  and  practice  can 
alone  in  all  arts  produce  a  good  execution.  It  is 
as  irrational  to  make  grammar  the  starting-point 
in  learning  to  speak,  as  it  would  be  to  impose  on 
a  child  the  study  of  perspective  or  the  theory  of 
colors  as  the  preliminary  step  to  learning  the  art 
of  painting.  In  both,  practice,  founded  on  ex- 
ample, is  the  basis  of  improvement.  Practice 
alone  may,  by  induction,  lead  to  a  knowledge  of 


THE  ART  OF   SPEAKING.  113 

grammar ;  the  latter  can  never  of  itself  lead  to 
practice. 

If,  as  already  shown,  the  knowledge  of  the 
second  class  of  words  is  a  nsefnl  auxiliary  in 
learning  to  understand  the  foreign  text,  it  must 
be  equally  useful  when  we  wish  to  express  our 
thoughts.  Those  are,  in  fact,  the  words  which 
enable  U3  to  vary  the  phraseology  indefinitely. 
The  professor  ought,  therefore,  to  have  them  be- 
fore him,  when  exercising  his  pupils,  that  he  may 
readily  introduce  them  into  the  sentences  which 
he  gives  them  in  their  own  language  for  construc- 
tion in  the  foreign  one.  The  learners,  on  their 
part,  when  thoroughly  masters  of  the  pronuncia- 
tion, will  find  no  difficulty  in  committing  them  to 
memory,  as  they  become  familiar  by  frequent  re- 
currence in  reading  and  hearing. 

A  previous  knowledge  of  the  verbs  is  equally 
useful  in  the  first  steps  toward  the  art  of  speaking. 
This  word  par  excellence,  constituted,  as  it  is  in 
cultivated  languages,  with  its  moods,  tenses,  per- 
sons, numbers,  and  inflections,  is  the  most  in- 
genious of  instituted  signs,  the  vital  element  of 
discourse,  and  the  masterpiece  of  language.  It 
expresses  in  itself  a  judgment  and  a  proposition. 
Its  inflections  are,  in  some  languages,  so  numer- 


114  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

cms  that  a  very  long  time  would  be  required  to 
know  them  all  by  practice  only.  It  is,  therefore, 
useful  to  make  them  an  object  of  study,  chiefly 
with  a  view  to  learning  the  different  relations 
which  they  express.  Let  it  be  remembered  that 
an  acquaintance  with  words  or  the  import  of  their 
inflections  does  not  imply  the  study  of  grammar, 
which  more  properly  consists  in  definitions,  rules, 
and  disquisitions  on  language. 

The  verb  is  truly  the  essence  of  the  proposi- 
tion :  without  it  we  can  neither  affirm,  deny,  nor 
question ;  it  will  necessarily  form  part  of  every 
sentence,  which  the  master  gives  his  pupils  as 
models,  to  exercise  them  in  the  phraseological 
variations.  "We  can  speak  from  the  moment  we 
know  one  verb  perfectly,  and  can  unhesitatingly 
apply  it  in  every  possible  manner  without  refer- 
ence to  the  mother-tongue. 

If  it  be  considered  that  a  verb  in  all  its  moods, 
tenses,  and  persons,  and  in  its  various  forms, 
active,  passive,  and  reflective,  affirmative,  inter- 
rogative, and  negative,  presents  above  a  thousand 
distinct  propositions,  it  will  clearly  appear  that, 
by  successively  joining  to  it  the  other  elements  of 
speech,  an  inexhaustible  diversity  of  expressions 
may  be  produced.     By  changing  the  words  of  the 


THE  ART  OF   SPEAKING.  115 

second  class,  we  obtain  different  modifications  of 
the  same  idea ;  and,  by  varying  those  of  the  first,  we 
express  different  ideas  nnder  similar  circumstances. 

The  thought  undergoes  at  pleasure  an  endless 
metamorphosis,  and  the  vocal  organs  acquire  cor- 
responding flexibility.  Each  new  verb  introduces 
a  new  series  of  ideas,  and  opens  a  boundless  field 
for  practice.  Diversity  in  unity  is  one  of  the 
great  laws  of  nature. 

Isolated  verbs  present  but  vague  ideas ;  they 
require  to  be  incorporated  in  phrases  which  de- 
termine their  meaning.  The  learners,  after  con- 
jugating a  verb  with  the  master,  so  as  to  make 
sure  of  its  pronunciation,  if  not  already  com- 
pletely known,  must,  at  first,  with  his  aid,  then 
alone,  join  words  to  it  in  all  its  moods  and  tenses, 
attaching  thereto,  directly  and  mentally,  the  ideas 
conveyed  by  these  combinations.  The  conjuga- 
tion of  propositions,  both  useful  and  interesting, 
supplies  memory  with  the  materials  of  conversa- 
tion; whereas  the  monotonous  task  of  conju- 
gating the  verb  by  itself  presents  no  distinct  idea 
to  the  mind,  and  affords  no  help  toward  speak- 
ing. Hence  it  is,  that  the  ablest  teachers  at  the 
present  day  exercise  their  pupils  on  the  verbs  in 
the  way  we  suggest. 
0  " 


116  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

Learners,  beside  forming  different  phrases  on 
the  same  verb,  should  compose  variations  on  the 
model  phrases,  which  the  professor  selects  from 
what  he  has  read  to  them.  This  exercise  is 
superior  to  the  first ;  because  it  leads  them  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown,  and  presents  to  them, 
not  words  with  which  to  form  phrases,  but  sentences 
to  be  decomposed  into  their  elements  and  recom- 
posed  by  imitation.  The  professor  will  give  the 
preference  to  those  expressions  which  elucidate 
points  of  grammar,  especially  those  which  differ 
in  their  construction  in  the  two  languages,  taking 
care  in  these  variations  to  preserve  the  syntactic 
or  idiomatic  character  of  the  model-phrase. 

If  his  pupils  hesitate,  they  should  be  at  once 
assisted  either  by  his  recalling  to  their  memory 
the  model-phrase,  or  stating  the  grammatical  rule 
which  governs  it,  as  also  by  constructing  for  them 
a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  sentences  proposed. 
When  seasonable  assistance  is  afforded  to  them, 
more  sentences  are  formed  in  a  given  time,  the 
syntactical  construction  of  the  language  becomes 
very  familiar,  and  the  words  are  learned  with 
their  proper  pronunciation,  by  being  repeatedly 
heard  from  the  instructor. 

This  exercise  is  the  counterpart  of  that  for 


THE  AET  OF   SPEAKING.  117 

teaching  how  to  understand  the  spoken  language 
as  described  in  the  last  chapter.  The  master 
then  formed  phraseological  combinations  in  his 
own  language;  he  now  forms  them  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  learners,  for  them  to  translate  into 
his.  But,  in  the  present  exercise,  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  great  number  of  new  words  is  not  so 
favorable  to  progress  as  the  reiterated  use  of  those 
already  known.  What  is  required  for  the  ex- 
change of  thought  is  not  so  much  the  names  of 
things  as  the  power  of  affirming,  denying,  and 
questioning  respecting  them  ;  one  must  especially 
be  able  to  adapt  the  foreign  phraseology  to  the 
requirements  of  thought,  and  reproduce  it  in  con- 
versation with  the  spontaneousness  of  the  native 
idiom.  The  vocabulary  of  young  children  is 
very  limited ;  and,  yet,  how  readily  and  fluently 
they  speak ! 

To  exercise  the  judgment  and  invention,  and 
to  afford  learners  opportunities  of  applying  what- 
ever knowledge  they  acquire,  should  be  the  con- 
stant endeavor  of  an  instructor.  Half  the  knowl- 
edge with  twice  the  power  of  applying  it,  is 
better  than  twice  the  knowledge  with  only  half 
the  power  of  application. 

The  model-phrases  must,  at  first,  be  very  sim- 


118  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

pie,  but  always  complete  and  composed  of  ele- 
ments familiar  to  the  learners,  in  order  that  they 
may  turn  their  attention  exclusively  to  the  con- 
struction. The  master  will  modify  them,  by  sub- 
stituting for  the  words  which  enter  into  their 
composition  other  words  of  the  same  species, 
changing  the  moods,  tenses,  and  persons  of  the 
verbs,  putting  an  interrogative  or  negative  propo- 
sition for  an  affirmative,  and  vice  versa ;  adding 
adverbs,  conjunctions,  and  other  words  as  they 
advance.  He  can  always  proportion  the  diffi- 
culty to  his  pupils'  proficiency,  and  give  them  the 
explanations  they  want ;  but  each  new  word  he 
introduces  must  be  dwelt  upon  in  order  to  render 
its  application  familiar  and  Hx  it  in  their  mem- 
ory. This  practical  syntax  is  thus  doubly  bene- 
ficial ;  but  what  makes  it  still  more  so  in  public 
instruction  is,  that  the  sentences  proposed  to  each 
learner,  not  having  been  committed  to  memory, 
are  so  many  problems,  the  solution  of  which  in- 
terests the  whole  class. 

Every  question  should  be  asked  before  naming 
the  learner  who  will  have  to  answer  it.  By  this 
means  all  the  members  of  a  class,  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  being  called  upon,  will  be  induced  to  listen 
attentively,  and,  under  the  stimulus  of  emula- 


THE  AKT  OF   SPEAKING.  119 

tion,  will  call  forth  their  mental  powers.  Each 
will  thus  contribute,  by  the  force  of  example,  to 
the  progress  of  the  others,  which  is  not  the  case 
when  they  repeat  a  lesson  learned  by  all. 

In  order,  with  still  more  effect,  to  direct  the 
attention  of  his  pupils  to  what  characterizes  the 
genius  of  the  foreign  language,  in  the  model- 
phrases  offered  for  their  imitation,  the  professor 
will  write  each  of  them,  or  have  them  written  on 
the  blackboard ;  then,  after  making  sure  that  all 
the  members  of  the  class  understand  it  perfectly, 
he  will  exercise  them  in  making  similar  ones;  as 
already  explained,  adducing  rules  in  aid  of  the 
practice,  whenever  required. 

As  a  prelude  to  this  exercise,  the  professor 
will,  at  first,  confine  his  pupils  to  the  bare  imi- 
tation of  the  text  he  reads  to  them.  After  each 
phrase  which  he  gives  them  to  translate,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  preceding  chapter,  he  will  call 
on  them  to  reproduce  the  original  from  their 
own  version,  phrase  by  phrase.  Having  the  text 
before  him,  he  could  easily  correct  their  errors, 
even  if  he  was  not  thoroughly  master  of  the 
language  he  teaches.  This  second  translation,  as 
it  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  pronunciation,  more 
particularly  suits  the  Latin,  in  which  it  may  be 


120  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

had  recourse  to  at  every  stage  of  the  learner's 
progress. 

But  the  reproduction  of  a  text  in  a  language 
which  is  to  be  spoken,  is  not  sufficient  for  the  re- 
quirements of  conversation.  "We  should  have  it 
in  our  power  to  vary  the  form  of  every  sentence. 
It  is  by  analogy  that  model-phrases  can  be  modi- 
fied so  as  to  reproduce  similar  ones,  and  thus  to 
multiply  indefinitely  the  expression  of  thought. 
The  learner  will  then  practise  making  variations 
on  the  text,  and  will  modify  every  sentence  in  a 
hundred  ways  before  he  parts  with  it.  The  repe- 
tition of  the  same  forms,  thus  applied  to  ever- 
varying  ideas,  is  both  impressive  and  recreative. 

It  is  in  living  languages  especially  that  the  ex- 
ercise in  phraseology  presents  great  facilities  ;  for 
the  teacher  can  always  supply  from  his  own  re- 
sources abundant  materials.  If  he  is  a  man  of 
education  and  a  native  of  the  country,  the  lan- 
guage of  which  he  teaches,  he  can  generally  de- 
termine, without  reference  to  books,  the  forms  of 
expression  which  are  admissible,  and  the  precise 
ideas  which,  in  different  cases,  are  attached  to 
words. 

The  model-phrase  being  previously  known, 
the  exercise  here  recommended  conforms  to  these 


THE   AET  OF   SPEAKING.  121 

vital  principles — the  idea  before  the  sign,  and  the 
phrase  before  the  words  /  it  possesses  also  this  great 
advantage :  while  the  judgment  is  directed  to  the 
idiomatic  arrangement  of  the  words,  the  memory 
lays  hold  of  them  as  a  necessary  consequence  of 
their  frequent  recurrence  in  the  various  modifica- 
tions which  the  same  sentence  undergoes,  and  lays 
hold  of  them  in  an  order  conformable  to  the  genius 
of  the  language. 

Jacotot,  the  originator  of  "  Universal  Teach- 
ing," and  other  eminent  professors  after  him,  ex- 
ercise their  pupils  on  these  variations ;  but,  for 
the  most  part,  they  confine  themselves  to  one  text, 
and  to  a  very  limited  number  of  ideas  and  expres- 
sions. Nevertheless,  they  are  on  the  right  road ; 
we  only  suggest  a  more  extensive  application  of 
their  method,  a  phraseology  more  diversified. 

Analogy,  which  presides  over  the  formation 
of  phrases,  is  an  imitation  modified  by  judgment : 
it  produces  similar  forms  ;  whereas,  imitation  re- 
produces the  forms  themselves.  It  is  a  logical 
process  with  its  premises  and  its  consequences,  a 
species  of  rule  of  three  in  which  the  fourth  term 
of  a  proportion  is  to  be  discovered.  If,  for  in- 
stance, the  French  of  I  am  hungry  is  fai  faim, 
what  is  the  French  of  he  is  hungry,  you  are 


122  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

hungry ',  are  you  hungry,  etc.  %  The  solution  of 
these  questions  is  a  logical  consequence  for  any 
one  who  knows  the  French  verb  etire  (to  be). 

With  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  conjuga- 
tions and  the  pronunciation,  these  oral  composi- 
tions may  be  entered  upon  at  any  period  of  the 
study.  If  regularly  practised  at  short  intervals, 
they  will  gradually  be  delivered  with  greater  de- 
cision and  fluency ;  and  a  close  association  will 
soon  be  established  between  the  thought  and  the 
phrase,  which  fixes  the  latter  in  the  mind  and 
begets  the  faculty  of  reproducing  it  spontaneously, 
of  thinking  aloud,  as  it  were,  in  the  foreign  lan- 
guage. 

Translation,  in  oral  expression,  is  attended 
with  the  same  inconvenience  which  is  attached  to 
it  in  the  first  two  arts,  from  the  want  of  identical- 
ly corresponding  terms  in  the  two  languages.  In 
colloquial  intercourse  no  time  is  allowed  for  the 
operation ;  its  tediousness  could  not  but  be  pain- 
ful to  impatient  hearers.  Unless  the  exchange  of 
ideas  is  direct,  there  can  be  no  genuine  conversa- 
tion. Direct  speaking  will  be  the  more  effectually 
accomplished,  if  the  learner,  conforming  to  the 
order  prescribed  by  reason  in  the  successive  acqui- 
sition of  the  different  departments  of  a  foreign 


THE  ART  OF  SPEAKING.  123 

language,  has  previously  associated  ideas  with 
the  words  by  direct  reading  and  direct  hearing. 

There  is  no  reading-book  which  does  not  pre- 
sent abundant  forms  of  speech  fit  to  serve  as 
models,  and  which  could  not  familiarize  a  learner 
with  most  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  language: 
leading  him,-  by  analogous  constructions,  from  the 
simplest  phrase  to  the  most  complicated  proposi- 
tion, giving  him,  in  short,  the  power  of  modifying 
the  expression  according  to  the  requirements  of 
thought,  an  advantage  never  to  be  gained  from 
the  dialogues  which  young  people  are  often  com- 
pelled to  commit  to  memory.  A  person  learns  to 
speak,  to  extemporize,  not  by  reciting  ready-made 
phrases,  but  by  forming  them  himself  by  analogy, 
and  adapting  them  to  the  ideas  he  has  to  express. 
The  acquisitions  of  memory  are  limited ;  those  of 
judgment  are  without  bounds. 

^Numerous  collections  of  dialogues  and  de- 
tached phrases  have  been  compiled  for  the  use  of 
learners ;  but  why  should  their  power  of  expres- 
sion be  restricted  to  such  fragments  of  conversa- 
tion ?  "What  need  is  there  for  all  these  books  of 
phrases,  when  good  writers  abound  in  expressions 
perfectly  correct,  while  their  application  is  ren- 
dered striking  and  easy  by  the  very  text  of  which 


124:  TIIE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

they  are  a  part  ?  Besides,  the  automatic  associa- 
tion of  words,  learned  in  a  given  order,  creates  a 
habit  which  forbids  their  being  availed  of  in  the 
diversified  circumstances  of  social  intercourse. 

A  judicious  selection  of  phrases  may,  how- 
ever, become  a  powerful  auxiliary  for  the  mani- 
festation of  thought,  if,  instead  of  learning  it  by 
heart  and  adhering  exclusively  to  the  text,  the 
learner  be  exercised  in  expressing  his  own  ideas 
by  numerous  modifications  of  its  phraseology, 
which  render  the  foreign  idiom  familiar  to  the 
mind. 

By  learning  a  phrase,  the  student  exercises  his 
memory ;  but,  by  constructing  one  himself,  he  ex- 
ercises his  judgment.  In  the  first  case  he  only 
knows  that  phrase  ;  in  the  second  he  learns  witli 
the  phrase  the  rule  by  which  it  is  formed.  By 
the  first  exercise  he  repeats  a  lesson ;  by  the  sec- 
ond he  speaks.  In  learning  dialogues  one  tries  to 
retain  foreign  phrases  corresponding  to  the  na- 
tive, without  having  occasion  to  inquire  into  the 
genius  of  either  language,  while  the  practice  of 
phrase-making  obliges  the  learner  to  compare  the 
constructions  of  the  corresponding  sentences. 

The  decomposition  of  model-phrases,  in  order 
to  reconstruct  others  of  the  same  kind,  is  a  felici- 


THE   ART   OF   SPEAKDsG.  125 

tous  application  of  the  analytical  method,  which 
leads  from  the  whole  to  its  parts,  and  by  which 
we  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  words,  the  import  of  their  inflections, 
and  the  relations  existing  between  them — con- 
siderations no  less  important  for  accuracy  of 
thought  than  for  propriety  of  expression. 

A  good  collection  of  dialogues  would,  howev- 
er, present  this  practical  advantage,  that,  abound- 
ing in  phrases  of  daily  use,  no  time  would  be 
lost  in  search  of  those  which  are  most  wanted 
in  ordinary  intercourse.  It  would  forward  the 
learner's  progress  in  familiar  conversation,  pro- 
vided he  should  modify  them  variously  in  direct 
association  with  the  ideas.  "With  a  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  pronunciation  and  analogy  for  a  guide,  an 
adult  especially  can  practise  by  himself  phraseolo- 
gical variations  which  embody  ideas  directly.  This 
exercise  does  not  come  within  the  province  of  a 
teacher,  who  can  assist  his  pupils  in  the  construc- 
tion of  foreign  sentences  only  by  a  reference  to 
the  corresponding  expressions  in  their  native 
tongue.  In  fact,  the  only  departments  of  a  lan- 
guage for  which  an  earnest  learner,  with  a  due 
share  of  common  sense,  really  requires  the  aid  of 
a  teacher,  are  audition  and  pronunciation;  for 


126  THE  STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

every  thing  else  ho  can  dispense  with  it  and  think 
for  himself. 

Analogy  enables  us  to  adapt  the  form  of  ex- 
pression to  the  requirements  of  the  thought ;  it  is 
the  light  of  language,  its  vital  principle ;  it  pre- 
sides over  its  formation,  and  greatly  facilitates  its 
intelligibility,  use,  and  acquisition.  When  custom 
is  doubtful,  analogy  decides.  To  establish  analo- 
gies is  the  first  exercise  of  the  judgment :  it  is 
the  kind  of  reasoning  most  accessible  to  all  capa- 
cities. Throughout  life  we  form  new  phrases 
from  those  we  have  heard  or  read.  Analogy  is 
the  very  soul  of  the  phraseological  exercises  we 
recommend ;  those  who  will  resort  to  them  with 
perseverance  will  acquire  the  habit  of  speaking  in 
conformity  with  the  genius  of  the  language.  The 
numerous  applications  we  make  of  this  power  in 
acquiring  our  own  render  its  action  so  instanta- 
neous that  it  passes  unperceived ;  this  accounts 
for  its  being  so  generally  neglected  in  the  teaching 
of  languages. 

The  learning  of  grammar,  with  a  view  to  con- 
form to  the  genius  of  a  language,  is  contrary  to 
the  dictates  of  nature  and  reason ;  since,  as  was 
shown,  it  places  precept  before  example,  theory 
before  practice.     The  learner  must  study  the  facts 


THE  AET  OF   SPEAKING.  127 

themselves,  not  the  rules  which  have  been  de- 
duced from  them.  A  foreign  language  ought  un- 
doubtedly to  be  known  grammatically ;  but  this 
does  not  mean  that  it  should  be  learned  through 
grammar ;  it  means  that  it  should  be  spoken  and 
written  conformably  to  the  practice  of  the  best 
speakers  and  writers.  If  we  reflect  that  gram- 
marians do  not  impose  laws,  but  only  state,  within 
certain  limits,  what  is  the  common  usage  among 
those  who  speak  and  write  well,  it  will  be  obvious 
that  the  readiest  and  most  direct  way  of  ascer- 
taining this  usage  is  to  frequent  the  society  of 
well-educated  people  and  study  the  best  writers. 
We  shall  thus  learn  from  them,  as  the  gram- 
marians themselves  have  done,  what  constitutes 
correct  expression.  Custom  is  the  arbiter  of  lan- 
guage, and,  consequently,  should  be  our  guide  in 
its  acquisition.  In  speaking  or  writing  a  foreign 
idiom,  we  ought  to  be  able,  as  in  the  vernacular, 
to  ascertain  the  right  pronunciation,  orthography, 
gender,  inflection,  grammatical  concord,  and  order 
of  words,  by  an  appeal  to  our  consciousness  of 
their  correctness,  resulting  from  reiterated  impres- 
sions, rather  than  to  our  recollection  of  rules. 

The  rapidity  of  speech  in  extempore  speaking 
does  not  permit  rules  of  any  kind  to  be  applied : 


128  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

the  words  should  flow  in  their  right  order,  not  by 
the  aid  of  reasoning,  but  instantaneously,  from  a 
sentiment  of  analogy,  and  as  the  immediate  con- 
sequence of  the  thought.  There  is  no  time  for 
thinking  about  the  details  of  composition  or  pro- 
nunciation in  the  very  act  of  speaking  ;  the  mind 
being  then  preoccupied  with  the  ideas,  their  con- 
nection, and  subordination.  An  art  is  fully  known 
only  when  practised  without  reference  to  its  ele- 
ments or  principles. 

Those,  however,  who  aim  at  a  systematic 
knowledge  of  the  foreign  grammar  must,  when 
sufficiently  advanced,  study  its  rules  and  put 
them  in  practice  by  numerous  applications,  taking 
as  models  the  examples  which  accompany  them. 
It  is  not  by  learning,  but  by  applying  the  rules, 
that  grammar  is  really  known.  This  is  an  exer- 
cise of  the  judgment  vastly  more  interesting  and 
beneficial,  in  every  respect,  than  mnemonic  les- 
sons of  grammar.  The  multiplicity  of  these  ap- 
plications, by  rendering  the  syntactic  forms  ha- 
bitual, will  fix  the  laws  of  the  language  indelibly 
in  the  mind.  Nothing  is  well  known  until  it  is 
well  understood  ;  and  the  best  way  to  understand 
a  thing  is  to  put  it  in  practice. 

If,  for  example,  a  great  diversity  of  sentences 


THE   AET   OF   SPEAKING.  129 

be  formed  with  French  verbs  requiring  either  a 
or  de  after  them,  the  perplexity  which  these  prepo- 
sitions present  will  soon  disappear  by  that  prac- 
tice ;  and  learners  will  use  them,  as  it  were,  in- 
stinctively by  the  force  of  habit  and  analogy.  In 
the  same  way,  also,  a  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  genders  of  nouns  would  be  easily  gained  in  the 
same  language  which  attributes  to  the  names  of 
inanimate  objects  a  masculine  or  feminine,  devoid 
of  any  distinctive  marks  by  which  it  can  be 
known,  and  whose  articles  and  adjectives  vary  in 
their  terminations  to  indicate  their  concord  with 
the  substantives  preceded  by  articles  and  other 
determinatives,  or  joined  to  various  adjectives, 
associations  would  be  formed  in  the  mind  of  the 
student,  which  would  enable  him  to  use  the  proper 
gender  spontaneously  and  unconsciously,  as  do  the 
French  themselves.  In  this  manner  all  the  gram- 
matical forms  of  a  language  would  soon  be  ren- 
dered familiar. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  idiomatic  phrases : 
let  a  student,  for  instance,  apply  the  French  ex- 
pression, perdre  quelqylun  de  vue  (to  lose  sight  of 
any  one),  to  a  sufficient  number  of  phrases  to 
render  the  construction  habitual,  he  will  not  be 
liable  to  forget  it,  and  afterward  fall  into  the  bar- 


130  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

barism  of  a  literal  translation  of  the  correspond- 
ing English  phrase.  The  power  of  expression 
will  arise  from  the  frequency  and  diversity  of 
these  applications. 

[Repetition  is  necessary  to  produce  lasting  im- 
pressions on  the  brain ;  hence  the  power  of  speak- 
ing arises  from  habits  engendered  by  patient  prac- 
tice ;  and,  as  the  professor  cannot  always,  in  his 
lessons,  devote  to  the  phraseological  exercise  the 
time  required  for  imparting  to  his  pupils  the  fa- 
cility and  variety  of  expression  which  thoughts 
demand,  he  will  give  them,  or  they  will  them- 
selves select  from  a  book,  the  model-phrases  on 
which,  in  the  intervals  of  the  lessons,  they  will 
write  and  make  vi/oa  voce  analogous  variations. 

The  phraseological  constructions  which  the 
student  practises  by  himself,  are  the  fittest  to  se- 
cure to  him  the  power  of  speaking  the  foreign 
language.  But,  to  this  effect,  he  must,  when  ex- 
ercising himself  in  the  absence  of  the  professor, 
carefully  avoid  forming  the  sentences  in  his  own 
language  for  translation  into  the  other.  He  will 
express  the  ideas  directly  in  the  latter,  that  is,  will 
think  aloud  in  it.  After  a  few  successful  attempts 
in  this,  the  transition  to  carrying  on  mentally  a 
train  of  thoughts  will  present  no  difficulty,  espe- 


THE   ART  OF   SPEAKING.  131 

cially  to  one  who  can  follow  directly  the  ideas  of 
a  book  or  of  a  speaker. 

There  can  be  no  conversation  on  a  connected 
subject,  unless  the  thought  be  embodied  directly 
in  the  language.  The  working  of  the  mind  in 
the  act  of  translating  impedes  the  exchange  of 
ideas  in  speaking  as  well  as  in  listening ;  it  checks 
the  movements  of  the  heart,  under  whose  inspira- 
tions are  manifested  the  intonation  of  the  voice 
and  the  expression  of  the  countenance,  so  indis- 
pensable to  the  force  and  clearness  of  oral  dis- 
course. 

In  order  the  more  certainly  to  make  the  for- 
eign language  the  vehicle  of  his  ideas,  the  stu- 
dent, speaking  to  himself  as  a  child  does  when 
talking  to  her  doll,  will  connect  together  familiar 
phrases — affirming  and  denying,  questioning  and 
answering  in  turns — carrying  on,  in  fact,  various 
trains  of  ideas  as  prompted  by  his  imagination. 
He  will,  in  these  monologues,  introduce  the  words 
and  phrases  he  knows  best,  and  which  flow  nat- 
urally from  his  lips  with  tones  and  inflections  of 
voice  that  harmonize  with  what  passes  in  his 
mind. 

The  written  exercise,  which  will  serve  at  the 
same  time  as  a  preparation  for  the  art  of  writing^ 


132  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

should  precede  the  oral  exercise,  if  the  organs  of 
hearing  and  speech  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently 
exercised  in  pronunciation.  In  any  case  the  two 
exercises  will  assist  each  other. 

If  a  person,  having  once  acquired  a  language, 
perseveres  in  these  exercises,  conjointly  with  direct 
reading,  he  will  preserve — nay,  more,  will  in- 
definitely extend  his  knowledge  of  it.  Habit,  not 
skill  in  the  practice  of  an  art.  is  the  means  of 
never  forgetting  it. 

Although,  in  our  ordinary  social  relations,  the 
exchange  of  thought  is  chiefly  effected  by  de- 
tached phrases,  we  sometimes  have  occasion  to 
unfold  at  some  length  our  ideas,  to  relate  facts 
and  incidents.  Passing,  therefore,  from  detached 
phrases  to  connected  discourse,  and  from  transla- 
tion to  the  direct  expression  of  thought,  the  learn- 
ers will  acquire  the  talent  of  speaking  extempore 
in  the  foreign  language,  as  they  would  in  their 
own,  by  relating  anecdotes,  historical  facts,  re- 
markable events,  or  other  narratives,  very  short  at 
first,  and  becoming  gradually  longer  as  their  pro- 
ficiency increases.  He  who  has,  one  day,  spoken 
for  ten  minutes,  has  surmounted  a  difficulty,  and 
will  be  able,  another  day,  to  speak  for  fifteen 
minutes.     So  will  this  invaluable  talent  progress. 


THE  ART  OF  SPEAKTNG.  133 

The  student  will  take  the  subject-matter  of 
his  narrations  from  works  written  in  the  language 
he  is  learning;  but  he  must  be  careful  not  to 
make  them  mere  lessons  of  memory.  To  recite  is 
one  thing,  to  speak  another.  The  learner  should 
never  parrot  words  in  a  given  order,  but  should  de- 
liver his  narrative  as  an  original,  and  use  language 
of  his  own,  a  task  which  presents  no  difficulty  at 
this  advanced  stage.  In  studying  his  subject  he 
must,  therefore,  pay  more  attention  to  his  ideas 
than  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  conveyed, 
to  the  succession  of  incidents  rather  than  of  the 
words,  and  afterward  relate  the  story  in  his  own 
way,  availing  himself  of  the  author's  phraseology 
only  when  it  comes  without  effort  as  the  direct 
expression  of  his  ideas,  and  even  modifying  the 
incidents  or  substituting  others  when  memory 
fails. 

In  a  class  all  the  learners  may  prepare  the 
same  narrative,  and  each,  in  turn,  deliver  some 
portion  of  it.  Should  they  be  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  enter  upon  this  exercise,  and  yet  feel 
diffident,  they  ought  to  select  subjects  which  are 
familiar  to  their  instructor,  thereby  enabling  him 
to  aid  their  recollection.  The  professor,  by  skil- 
fully catechising  them  respecting  the  characters 


134  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

and  incidents  of  the  story,  through,  the  medium 
of  the  foreign  language  itself,  would  elicit  from 
them  the  whole  matter.  In  an  advanced  class, 
considerable  interest  and  benefit  would  accrue 
from  the  introduction  by  the  more  forward  learn- 
ers of  narratives  not  previously  known  to  their 
class-fellows. 

Narration  is  in  a  foreign,  as  in  the  native 
idiom,  the  best  preparation  for  extemporaneous 
speaking,  and  no  less  useful  as  a  means  of  intel- 
lectual culture  than  necessary  in  social  inter- 
course. It  yields  in  importance  to  no  other  exer- 
cise. It  appeals  to  the  judgment  as  well  as  to 
the  memory,  by  directing  attention  to  the  lan- 
guage of  the  author,  and  also  to  the  connected 
facts  of  the  narrative,  to  portraits  of  characters 
and  descriptions  of  places.  It  fosters  in  a  class 
self-confidence  and  presence  of  mind,  without 
which  words  and  ideas  are  unavailing  for  public 
speaking.  It  possesses  also  this  advantage,  as  an 
exercise  in  pronunciation,  that  the  latter  is  natu- 
rally associated  with  the  ideas,  whereas,  in  oral 
reading,  it  is  irrationally  made  a  consequence  of 
the  orthography. 

The  professor  will  again  promote  the  progress 
of  his  pupils  in  extempore  speaking,  if  he  reads  or 


THE   ART  OF   SPEAKING.  135 

delivers  to  them  narratives,  descriptions,  or  any 
interesting  discourses  which,  while  exhibiting  to 
them  the  proper  way  of  treating  a  subject,  will 
also  set  them  the  example  of  correct  diction  and. 
good  pronunciation.  Success  depends  on  the 
frequency  of  the  efforts  made  to  reproduce  what 
has  been  read  or  heard. 

It  is  a  common  saying  that,  to  learn  to  speak, 
one  should  speak  much:  this  is  not  sufficient; 
imitation  of  what  is  read  and  heard  is  far  more 
conducive  to  improvement  in  that  art  than  the 
act  itself  of  speaking.  Mere  practice  in  the  latter 
imparts  volubility  in  dealing  out  one's  stock  of 
materials ;  it  does  not  enrich  the  mind  with  one 
word,  one  idea. 

It  has  been  shown  that  reading  to  learners 
is  preferable  to  conversing  with  them,  as  a 
means  of  initiating  them  into  the  art  of  hearing  ; 
so  is  narrating  preferable  to  joining  in  conversa- 
tion as  a  means  of  learning  to  speak.  It  affords 
greater  facilities  for  the  intelligent  imitation  of 
good  models  and  the  delivery  of  long  discourses ; 
whereas,  the  use  of  monosyllables  and  detached 
phrases  being  optional  in  conversation,  the  learner 
might  not  make  the  efforts  necessary  for  long 
periods.     The  instructor,   owing    to  his  greater 


136  THE  STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

power  of  expression,  would  probably  engross  the 
conversation  to  himself,  so  that  the  desired  end 
would  not  be  attained.  Even,  if  the  pupil  took 
an  equal  share  in  it,  he  would  also  speak  less  in  a 
given  time  than  in  narration. 

The  latter  presents  this  other  advantage,  that 
the  professor,  having  neither  to  supply  the  subject 
of  conversation,  nor  to  answer  his  pupil,  would 
give  his  attention  exclusively  to  the  manner  of  his 
delivery,  and  might  thus  correct  all  his  errors. 
The  case  would  be  quite  different  in  conversation. 
To  keep  it  from  nagging,  the  professor  would  neg- 
lect the  manner  for  the  matter ;  his  mind  being 
preoccupied  with  what  he  should  say,  or  what  re- 
plies he  should  give,  the  pupil's  mistakes  would 
pass  unnoticed,  and  might  become  a  habit. 

No  conversation  is  possible,  unless  one  can 
speak  with  sufficient  ease  and  correctness  not  to 
give  occasion  for  frequent  interruptions,  caused 
by  hesitation  in  the  choice  of  words  and  forms  of 
speech,  or  by  the  correction  of  errors  in  pronun- 
ciation or  construction.  These  interruptions  di- 
verting attention  from  the  subject  to  the  words, 
would  be  equally  discouraging  for  the  pupil  and 
fatiguing  for  the  master:  they  would  render  se- 
rious conversation  almost  impossible. 


THE  ART  OF  SPEAKING.  137 

Besides,  what  conversation  can  there  be  be- 
tween a  master  and  his  pnpils  ?  The  very  little 
that  the  latter  could  say  wonld  never  afford  suffi- 
cient practice  to  gain  an  extensive  range  of  collo- 
quial language.  They  meet,  the  one  to  commu- 
nicate ;  the  others,  to  receive  instruction ;  the  for- 
mer ought  to  speak ;  the  latter,  to  listen. 

As  to  those  unconnected,  commonplace  con- 
versations which  daily  arise  from  the  familiar 
intercourse  of  life,  and  for  which  dialogues  are  a 
sort  of  preparation,  they  do  not  require  any  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  a  language,  nor  any  remark- 
able conversational  powers.  An  intelligible  pro- 
nunciation and  the  most  ordinary  phraseology  are 
amply  sufficient.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  in 
in  this  familiar  exchange  of  ideas,  the  ignorant 
speak  more  than  the  learned,  and  fools  more  than 
men  of  sense.  The  loquacity  of  young  children 
and  servant-maids  is  proverbial.  Descartes  must 
have  alluded  to  this  kind  of  talk  when  he  said, 
"Mere  speaking  does  not  require  much  judg- 
ment." 

As  an  introduction  to  this  colloquial  talk, 
learners  may  be  asked  in  the  foreign  language 
itself  various  questions  illustrative  of  the  verb  or 
the  model-phrase,  which  is  in  course  of  practice ; 


138  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

and,  by  substituting  the  affirmative  or  negative 
proposition  for  the  interrogative  used  by  the  pro- 
fessor, they  will  find  no  difficulty  in  giving  the 
answers  in  the  very  words  and  idiomatical  or  syn- 
tactical construction  of  the  questions. 

With  a  higher  aim  in  view  and  at  a  more  ad- 
vanced period,  if  the  professor  has  sufficient  lei- 
sure to  converse  more  at  length  with  his  pupils, 
and  has  not  present  to  his  mind  a  fit  subject  in 
which  the  latter  can  join,  we  will  suggest  that 
every  object  within  reach  or  within  sight  may 
supply  matter  for  instructive  conversation.  An 
enlightened  teacher  can  always  draw  out  his 
pupils  by  questioning  them  on  the  forms,  colors, 
dimensions,  and  other  properties  of  any  article 
whatever,  on  its  value,  origin,  mode  of  fabrication, 
and  on  the  substances  which  enter  into  its  com- 
position. By  the  relations  which  this  article  may 
bear  to  others,  he  will  be  led  to  conversing  with 
them  on  a  great  number  of  things,  which  cannot 
fail  to  extend  their  vocabulary  and  enlarge  the 
sphere  of  their  ideas.* 

Let  the  professor  be  received  as  a  friend  in  the 

See  "  Language  as  a  Means  of  Mental  Culture  and  Interna- 
tional Communication."  Book  IV.,  Chapter  II.  Conversations 
on  Objects. 


THE  ART  OF   SPEAKING.  139 

family  of  his  pupils ;  they  will  then  have  the  op- 
portunity to  put  into  practice  in  his  society  the 
knowledge  which  he  has  imparted  to  them  of  his 
language.  In  any  case,  connected  conversations 
can  be  practised  only  in  social  intercourse  and  in 
private  teaching ;  they  are  next  to  impossible  in 
large  classes.  The  members  of  those  must  resort 
to  narrations,  to  which  they  may  add  recapitula- 
tions of  their  readings.  These  exercises  so  very 
superior  to  conversation,  as  means  of  unfolding 
the  talent  of  speaking,  will,  at  the  same  time  that 
they  afford  an  opportunity  of  turning  to  advan- 
tage the  acquirements  gained  by  the  practice  of 
the  first  two  arts,  exercise  their  fellow-students  in 
the  understanding  of  the  spoken  language. 

At  this  last  stage  of  their  studies,  they  can 
commit  but  few  mistakes  in  speaking,  and  should 
not,  therefore,  be  deterred  by  any  motive  from 
joining  in  conversation.  Self-confidence  is  the 
basis  of  success  in  every  art.  From  the  moment 
they  use  the  foreign  language  with  any  degree  of 
expertness,  their  further  improvement  will  be  car- 
ried on,  as  in  their  own,  by  frequent  intercourse 
with  the  well-educated,  the  reading  of  the  great 
writers,  and  due  attention  to  precepts  on  the  ora- 
torical art.     But  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that,  in 


140  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

ordinary  circumstances,  a  person  will  be  able  to 
acquire  at  home  a  complete  knowledge  of  all  the 
idioms  and  delicacies  of  a  foreign  language,  or 
command  of  expression  adequate  to  the  elaborate 
discussion  of  serious  subjects.  Great  powers  of 
elocution  are  rare  in  the  native  and  rarer  still  in 
a  foreign  idiom. 

The  different  exercises  we  have  sketched,  by 
which  learners  are  led  from  their  first  initiation 
in  the  understanding  of  the  spoken  language,  in 
pronunciation,  phrase-making,  and  narration,  to 
the  complete  possession  of  these  different  depart- 
ments, demand  the  active  cooperation  of  master 
and  pupil.  They  must  alternate  at  intervals, 
proportioned  in  length  to  the  age  of  the  learners. 
The  prolonged  action  of  the  faculties  on  one  and 
the  same  subject  fatigues  them  and  produces  in- 
attention. A  change  of  occupation  is  indispen- 
sable to  renew  their  energy. 

Students  will  be  less  subject  to  fatigue  and 
listlessness,  as  we  have  suggested,  if  they  are  of 
an  age  to  take  pleasure  in  the  work  allotted  to 
them,  and,  especially,  if  they  have  gained  the 
talent  of  direct  reading.  It  is  in  this  case  only 
that  the  professor  can  really  take  an  active  part 
in  their  studies,  and  that  they  will  derive  from 


THE  ART   OF   SPEAKING.  141 

Lis  services  all  the  advantages  to  be  expected 
therefrom. 

The  great  talent  of  the  master  lies  in  exciting 
his  pupils  to  study,  in  leading  them  to  voluntary 
efforts,  and  in  making  them  feel  the  necessity  of 
the  tasks  imposed  on  them.  When  he  has  once 
put  them  in  the  right  track,  their  progress  will 
thenceforth  depend  only  on  their  perseverance  in 
following  the  prescriptions  of  nature.  The  great- 
est service  a  professor  can  render  his  pupils  is  to 
make  them  independent  of  him. 

Some  persons  lament  that  they  have  not  a 
talent  for  learning  languages  :  this  is  often  but  a 
plea  for  a  want  of  energy,  of  perseverance,  but 
also  because  they  know  not  how  to  proceed  in  the 
study.  Man  has  been  created  a  communicative 
being,  and  has  been  endowed  with  the  means  of 
accomplishing  his  destiny.  Every  language  is 
accessible  to  his  intellect,  and  its  pronunciation 
to  his  organs ;  all  that  he  requires  is  the  will  and 
a  good  method :  a  child  with  a  lever  is  stronger 
than  Hercules  abandoned  to  his  own  strength. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE     ART     OF     WRITING. 

"  Iter  est  longum  per  praccepta,  breve  et  efficax  per  exempla." 

Seneca. 

In  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  life  we  have 
less  frequent  occasion  to  write  than  to  speak. 
The  necessity  for  composition  in  a  foreign  lan- 
guage is  almost  entirely  confined  to  epistolary 
purposes ;  and  very  few  are  those  who,  being  ac- 
quainted with  a  foreign  language,  have  corre- 
spondents abroad.  "With  the  exception  of  diplo- 
matists and  merchants,  out  of  a  hundred  persons 
who  learn  foreign  languages,  not  two  perhaps 
ever  have  need  of  writing  them.  Besides,  the 
fear  of  not  expressing  one's  thoughts  clearly,  or 
of  making  blunders,  often  deters  persons  from 
turning  this  talent  to  account. 

Nevertheless,  the  art  of  writing,  though  of 
limited  utility  as  an  ultimate  object,  is  a  power- 
ful auxiliary  to  the  acquiring  of  a  critical  and 
complete  knowledge  of  a  language.     The  exer- 


THE  ART  OF   WETTING.  143 

cises  necessary  for  improvement  in  the  art  of  wri- 
ting a  foreign  language,  will  enable  a  student, 
without  a  master's  aid,  to  become  well  acquainted 
with  the  spelling,  concord,  and  arrangement  of 
words,  and  to  apply  the  rules  of  the  language  to 
the  expression  of  thought,  as  he  learns  them. 
This  art  is  the  more  easily  acquired,  as,  like  that 
of  reading,  it  can  be  practised  in  the  master's  ab- 
sence, being  based  exclusively  on  the  imitation  of 
good  writers. 

The  various  exercises  recommended  for  learn- 
ing the  art  of  speaking,  are  also  applicable  to  that 
of  writing.  The  student  who  understands  the 
foreign  tongue,  both  written  and  spoken,  without 
translating,  ought  always,  when  attempting  the 
construction  of  phrases,  either  orally  or  in  writing, 
to  attach  to  them  their  correlative  ideas,  without 
the  intervention  of  the  corresponding  expressions 
of  his  own  idiom.  In  proceeding  thus  gradually 
from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complicated  propo- 
sitions, from  detached  sentences  to  connected  dis- 
course, he  will  soon  be  able  to  compose  directly, 
that  is,  to  think  in  writing  that  language. 

The  greater  the  proficiency  attained  in  the 
arts  of  reading,  hearing,  and  speaking,  the  greater 
the  success  in  the  exercises  which  have  composi- 


144  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

tion  for  their  object.  This  is  the  order  dictated 
by  reason,  but  reversed  by  routine  despite  com- 
mon sense.  To  attempt  writing  a  language  with- 
out previous  extensive  reading,  is  wishing  to  reap 
without  having  sown,  to  know  without  having 
learned.  The  exercises  compiled  for  the  avowed 
object  of  applying  rules  at  the  outset  of  the  study, 
are  purely  mechanical,  and  can  end  only  in  dis- 
gust and  failure.  "We  should  tax  any  one  with 
insanity,  who  should  insist  on  teaching  a  child  to 
write  his  own  language  before  he  had  learned  to 
read ;  is  it  not  far  more  unreasonable  to  compel 
a  learner  to  write  in  a  language  of  which  he  has 
not  yet  the  least  practical  knowledge  ? 

Imitation  being  the  basis  of  progress  in  this 
art,  recourse  must  not  be  had,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, to  grammar,  which  only  gives  precepts, 
but  to  a  good  author  who  stands  as  a  model.  His 
text,  while  exhibiting  the  rule  embodied  in  the 
example,  presents  the  words  with  their  orthog- 
raphy and  their  true  meanings ;  it  teaches,  in  ad- 
dition to  syntax,  all  that  constitutes  the  merit  of 
style.  It  also  dispenses,  and  this  is  not  one  of  its 
least  advantages,  with  the  use  of  the  dictionary, 
which  is  still  more  perplexing  in  writing  a  foreign 
language,  than  in  translating  into  one's  own. 


THE   AET  OF  WRITING.  145 

It  was  by  studying  the  works  of  their  pred 
ecessors  that  the  most  distinguished  authors 
learned  to  write.  Many  of  them  have  declared 
the  fact  in  their  works,  and,  eager  to  benefit  us 
by  their  experience,  have  earnestly  recommended 
the  practice  of  reading.  "  Plato,"  says  Longinus, 
who  himself  holds  the  same  opinion,  "  has  taught 
us  that  the  surest  means  of  attaining  perfection  in 
style,  is  to  imitate  and  emulate  eminent  writers." 
D'Alembert  exclaims,  "  What  precepts  are  pref- 
erable to  the  study  of  great  models  I " — "  The  as- 
siduous reading  of  good  writings,"  says  Yoltaire, 
"  will  be  more  useful  for  the  formation  of  a  pure 
and  correct  style,  than  the  study  of  our  grammars. 
We  soon  acquire  the  habit  of  speaking  well  by 
the  frequent  reading  of  those  who  have  written 
well."  One  of  our  most  eloquent  writers,  J.  J. 
Rousseau,  also  says :  "  I  give  you  no  other  rules 
for  writing  well,  than  the  books  which  are  well 
written." 

It  is  a  law  of  Nature  that  our  minds  insensi- 
bly imbibe  a  coloring  from  those  with  whom  we 
associate,  whether  they  are  brought  in  contact 
by  the  living  voice  or  the  written  page.  De- 
mosthenes, in  order  to  improve  his  style,  tran- 
scribed eight  times  the  "  Peloponnesian  War  "  of 
Thucydides.      When  Lord   Clarendon  was    en- 


146  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

gaged  in  writing  his  history,  he  was  constantly 
studying  Livy  and  Tacitus.  The  latter  classic 
was  also  the  favorite  author  of  Montesquieu. 
Again,  Benjamin  Franklin,  adopting  Dr.  John- 
son's opinion,  made  the  Spectator  of  Addison  his 
model-book.  Byron  acknowledged  what  he  owed 
to  Pope,  when  he  mentioned  him,  in  one  of  his 
letters,  as  "the  delight  of  his  boyhood  and  the 
study  of  his  manhood."  Boileau  declares  himself 
the  imitator  of  Horace.  Dante  took  Yirgil  for 
his  model :  "  Thou  art  my  master  and  my  author," 
he  exclaims  in  his  sublime  poem ;  "  it  is  from  thee 
alone  I  took  that  beautiful  style  which  has  done 
me  honor." 

The  best  mode  of  imitation  in  foreign  com- 
position is  double-translation,  which  consists  in 
translating  the  foreign  text  into  the  national 
idiom,  and  then  endeavoring  to  reproduce  that 
text  by  translating  the  version  back  into  the 
original. 

The  viva  voce  double-translation,  recommend- 
ed in  the  preceding  chapter,  was  made  phrase  by 
phrase,  and  consequently  only  taught  how  to  ex- 
press detached  ideas ;  the  present  exercise,  having 
for  its  object  the  formation  of  style,  is  performed 
on  passages  increasing  in  length  with  the  learner's 


THE   ART   OF   WRITING.  147 

progress,  and  will  lead  to  the  writing  of  connected 
discourse. 

This  imitative  process  can  be  easily  adapted 
to  all  degrees  of  proficiency.  Besides  exercising 
the  learner  in  the  composition  of  his  own,  as  well 
as  of  the  foreign  language,  it  supplies  the  means 
of  correcting  mistakes  in  the  latter,  by  comparing 
his  second  translation  with  the  author's  text, 
which,  if  judiciously  chosen,  is  the  safest  guide 
that  can  be  followed. 

Double-translation  is  not  an  innovation ;  it  is 
recommended  by  Cicero,  Pliny  the  Younger, 
Quintilian,  and  nearly  all  those  who,  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  have  suggested  means  for  acquiring  the 
arts  of  writing  and  speaking  in  a  second  language. 
It  is  chiefly  by  means  of  this  exercise  that  Queen 
Elizabeth,  as  Koger  Ascham,  her  tutor,  tells  us, 
learned  the  Latin  language,  which  she  spoke  so 
freely.  The  historian  Gibbon  declares  that  he 
gained,  through  double-translation,  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  Latin  and  French,  and  the  com- 
mand of  a  correct  style  in  English. 

Its  principle  is  generally  recognized  in  classi- 
cal instruction ;  the  Latin  exercises  given  to  boys, 
are  usually  imitations  of  the  classical  texts,  which 
they  have  already  construed.     Its  utility  is  not 


148  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

restricted  to  the  idioms  of  ancient  times,  and  of 
modern  Europe ;  Sir  "William  Jones  asserts  that, 
"  by  double-translation  more  Arabic  and  Persian 
will  be  learned  in  ten  months,  than  can  be  learned 
in  ten  years  by  any  other  method." 

The  difficulty  of  the  task  must  always  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  proficiency  of  the  pupils ;  no  ex- 
ercise ought  to  be  either  so  difficult  as  to  discour- 
age their  efforts,  or  so  easy  as  to  require  no  effort 
at  all.  Double-translation  is  perhaps  the  best  of 
all  exercises  for  avoiding  these  extremes.  It  also 
possesses  the  invaluable  advantage  of  being  not 
less  available  in  the  first  than  in  the  last  stage  of 
study;  for  its  difficulties  may  be  diminished  or 
increased  at  pleasure ;  and  hence  its  perfect  adap- 
tation to  public  instruction,  as  the  same  task  may 
be  given  in  common  to  persons  of  very  unequal 
proficiency  who  happen  to  be  in  the  same  class. 

The  choice  of  the  model,  especially  in  living 
languages,  may  always  be  suited  to  the  capaci- 
ty, progress,  or  requirements  of  the  learner.  In 
the  commencement,  the  first  version  is  made  as 
literal  as  the  genius  of  the  national  language 
permits;  and  the  second  translation  is  written 
shortly  after  the  first,  while  the  language  of  the 
original  text  is  still  vivid  in  his  mind.     A  perusal 


THE   AET  OF   WRITING.  149 

of  the  text  just  before  making  the  second  transla- 
tion, would  also,  if  required,  facilitate  the  repro- 
duction. Moreover,  the  student  can,  at  any 
moment,  have  recourse  to  it  for  the  purpose  of 
making  sure  of  the  words  or  construction  which 
have  escaped  his  memory.  This  reference  to  the 
model  is,  in  many  respects,  preferable  to  using  a 
dictionary. 

As  the  student  advances,  he  will,  in  his  efforts 
to  reproduce  the  text,  rely  more  on  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  and  less  on  the  recollection 
of  the  original.  His  first  version,  too,  will  be 
less  and  less  literal;  and  he  will  gradually  in- 
crease the  interval  between  the  two  translations, 
thus  leaving  greater  scope  to  memory  and  reflec- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  if  he  perseveres  in  the 
practice  of  the  three  other  branches,  simultane- 
ously with  this  exercise,  he  will  daily  acquire 
greater  facility  in  its  execution. 

In  his  first  version  the  learner  must  be  faithful 
to  the  original  text,  and,  at  the  same  time,  con- 
form to  the  genius  of  his  own  idiom :  he  should 
be  careful  neither  to  add  to  nor  take  from  the 
ideas ;  for  his  business  is  rather  to  copy  than  to 
compose.  It  is  often  suggested,  as  a  general  di- 
rection, that  the  foreign  work  should  be  rendered 


150  TIIE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

in  that  style  which,  it  may  be  presumed,  its  au 
tlior  would  have  employed  had  he  written  in  the 
language  into  which  the  translation  is  made. 
This  suggestion,  although  consistent  with  reason, 
must  be  received  with  some  caution ;  for,  if  strict- 
ly followed,  it  may  sometimes  lead  to  mere  imita- 
tion rather  than  to  faithful  interpretation  of  the 
original ;  besides,  it  may  restrain  the  flexibility  of 
the  language  and  its  adaptation  to  diversified  ex- 
pression of  thought. 

The  correction  of  this  translation  has,  in  pub- 
lic instruction,  great  advantage  over  that  of  ori- 
ginal essays :  it  can  be  effected  simultaneously  for 
all  the  members  of  a  large  class ;  and  it  occupies 
comparatively  little  time.  Each  learner  having 
his  version  before  him  and  pencil  in  hand,  is,  in 
turn,  called  upon  to  read  a  portion  of  the  compo- 
sition, on  which  the  professor  comments;  the 
others,  at  the  same  time,  marking  such  mistakes 
as  they  have  made  in  common  with  the  reader. 
The  examination  of  an  exercise  of  twenty  lines, 
read  aloud  two  or  three  times  over,  in  portions  of 
four  or  five  lines,  by  a  dozen  learners,  would  am- 
ply suffice  to  elicit  all  the  errors  which  may  have 
been  committed  by  fifty  or  more  students.  Es- 
says, on  the  contrary,  require  each  to  be  read 


THE   ART   OF   WRITING.  151 

through  and  examined  separately;  their  correc- 
tion, consequently,  engaging  the  attention  of  only 
one  learner  at  a  time,  leaves  the  others  idle,  and, 
from  the  time  consumed,  is  impracticable  in  a 
class.  Translation,  by  requiring  all  the  learners 
to  express  the  same  ideas,  brings  their  powers  of 
composition  to  a  closer  and,  hence,  a  more  inter- 
esting contest ;  much  useful  information  is  also 
elicited  by  a  critical  examination  of  their  different 
modes  of  expressing  the  same  thoughts. 

If  the  learner,  having  no  competent  person  to 
whom  he  can  submit  his  first  version,  wishes, 
nevertheless,  to  know  whether  it  is  correct,  he 
may  compare  it  with  a  good  translation  of  his 
model.  He  might  even  make  his  second  version 
from  such  a  translation,  if,  from  want  of  time,  or 
any  other  reason,  he  wished  to  dispense  with  writ- 
ing the  first.  This  mode  of  proceeding  is  recom- 
mended by  M.  Guizot :  "  Take,"  he  says,  "  a  page 
translated  from  a  good  author  into  your  own  lan- 
guage or  any  other  that  you  know ;  render  this 
page  in  the  language  of  the  author,  and  compare 
your  work  with  the  original.  By  so  doing,  you 
learn  the  words,  the  syntax ;  and  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  a  language  which  is  fixed  in  the  memory 
by  reading  and  writing."     From  this  it  is  obvious 


152  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

that  translations  may  always  be  turned  to  account, 
whether  they  accompany  the  original  text  or  are 
published  apart. 

The  second  translation  naturally  presents  more 
difficulty  than  the  first,  and  cannot  be  made  with- 
out the  student  constantly  appealing  to  his  recol- 
lection of  the  original  text.  These  very  efforts 
will  have  the  effect  of  fixing  in  the  memory  its 
words  and  peculiar  construction.  The  more  idio- 
matic the  foreign  expressions,  the  greater  must 
have  been  the  effort  to  render  them  accurately, 
and  the  better  will  they  be  remembered. 

Let  it  not  be  objected  that  learners  would  be 
apt  to  copy  the  original  text,  instead  of  perform- 
ing the  second  translation.  Such  a  practice  is  im- 
probable at  this  advanced  stage  of  the  study  and 
at  the  age  we  have  assigned  to  them,  especially 
if  they  are  not  unreasonably  rebuked  for  the  er- 
rors they  commit.  It  rarely  happens  that  young 
men  betray  the  confidence  placed  in  them.  Under 
the  worst  circumstances,  the  second  translation 
may  be  written  in  the  presence  of  the  instructor ; 
or  the  text-book  may  be  taken  from  them,  when 
they  are  writing  the  second  translation. 

For  greater  convenience,  the  second  version 
should  be  written  in  the  same  copybook  opposite 


THE  ART  OF   WRITING.  153 

to  the  first,  the  alternate  pages  having  been  left 
blank  for  this  purpose ;  thus  comparison  will  be 
considerably  facilitated. 

The  assistance  of  an  instructor  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  for  either  the  first  or  the  second  ver- 
sion, if  the  student  has  become  familiar  with  the 
foreign  language,  and  if,  more  especially,  he  can 
write  his  own  correctly.  The  better  he  knows 
the  latter  the  easier  will  he  find  this  first  opera- 
tion. Even  in  case  of  his  having  followed  our 
advice,  and  exercised  himself  more  in  direct  read- 
ing than  in  translating,  he  will  have  no  hesitation 
in  rendering  the  ideas  of  the  foreign  text ;  for  a 
person  who  can  express  his  thoughts  readily  in 
the  language  into  which  he  translates,  will  not  re- 
quire much  previous  practice  in  translation  to  suc- 
ceed in  this  version.  "When  he  clearly  conceives 
an  idea,  from  whatever  source  derived,  he  will 
surely  be  able  to  express  it. 

In  order  to  correct  his  second  version,  the  stu- 
dent will  compare  it  with  the  original,  phrase 
for  phrase,  word  for  word,  noting  the  differences 
he  finds  between  the  two ;  whether  in  orthogra- 
phy or  phraseology,  he  will  easily  discover  the 
reason  of  the  preference  to  be  given  to  the 
expressions  of  the  original  text,  if  he  has  read 


154  THE    STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

much,   and  bestowed    some  attention  on  gram 
mar. 

In  case  a  student  is  as  yet  too  young  or  too 
little  versed  in  his  own  language  to  be  able  to  ac- 
count for  the  difference  of  words  or  construction, 
he  will  write  the  words  of  the  model  over  his  own, 
and  will  submit  both  to  his  instructor,  who  will 
find  occasion  in  this  parallel  for  entering  into  all 
the  developments  of  literary  criticism  adapted  to 
his  age  and  proficiency. 

According  to  the  nature  of  the  questions,  the 
instructor  will  direct  his  pupil's  attention  to  the 
orthography,  the  etymology,  or  the  grammar; 
will  point  out  the  various  shades  of  meaning  in 
synonymes ;  and  explain  the  difference  between 
idiomatic  and  syntactic  forms,  between  the  literal 
and  the  figurative  senses,  between  absolute  and 
relative  terms,  between  expressions  of  an  elevated 
and  those  of  a  familiar  style,  as  well  as  the  vari- 
ous modes  of  expressing  the  same  ideas,  or  the 
difference  of  idea  resulting  from  difference  of 
construction. 

The  doubts  that  each  pupil  of  a  class  thus 
submits  to  the  professor,  will  afford  him  an  oppor- 
tunity for  giving  instruction  of  the  highest  value 
to  the  whole  class,  and  the  more  valuable  as  it  is 


THE   AKT   OF   WRITING.  155 

not  to  be  found  in  the  majority  of  the  books 
usually  put  into  the  hands  of  young  people. 

It  will  sometimes  happen  that  the  student 
competes  successfully  with  his  model;  for  the 
same  idea  may  be  presented  in  different  ways, 
and  an  author  does  not  always  choose  the  best. 
These  little  literary  triumphs  will  greatly  enhance 
the  pleasure  of  the  compositions  and  stimulate  to 
perseverance.* 

The  moment  when  these  comparisons  are  made 
is  not  the  best  time  for  the  student  to  correct  his 
exercise ;  he  merely  marks  the  errors  with  a  pen- 
cil, reserving  them  for  future  correction  from 
memory.  The  reflection  required  on  a  second 
consideration  of  the  same  subject  to  remember 
the  differences  previously  noticed,  will  strengthen 
the  memory  and  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the 
same  errors.  Reflecting  on  one's  faults  is  the 
surest  way  of  avoiding  them  in  future. 

If  a  person  who  learns  a  foreign  language 
without  a  master,  has  recourse,  for  the  double- 
translation,  to  a  book  with  the  two  texts  on  oppo- 

*  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  we  here  flatter  students  at  the 
expense  of  authors.  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  for  instance,  which 
is  frequently  put  into  the  hands  of  French  pupils  who  arc  learn- 
ing English,  abounds  with  incorrect  expressions. 


156  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

site  pages,  lie  may,  if  necessary,  compare  his  two 
versions  with  them ;  and  if,  for  want  of  time,  01 
any  other  reason,  he  cannot  write  the  exercise,  he 
will  go  through  it  orally,  endeavoring  to  repro- 
duce each  text  of  the  book,  without  looking  at 
it  first ;  and,  as  he  advances  with  his  version,  he 
will  compare  it  with  the  model  text. 

The  choice  of  the  text  to  be  used  as  a  model 
for  double-translation,  depends  altogether  on  the 
kind  of  composition  and  style  that  is  best  suited 
to  the  learner's  ultimate  purpose.  "What  most 
people  want,  however,  is  to  be  able  to  write  let- 
ters, and  this  end  can  be  best  attained  by  the  use 
of  the  class  of  books  which  we  have  recommend- 
ed for  initiating  students  in  the  first  three  arts. 
The  familiarity  of  their  subjects  and  the  simplici- 
ty of  their  style  are  perfectly  suited  to  the  re- 
quirements of  epistolary  correspondence.  It 
would  be  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  rival  the 
great  writers. 

If,  when  able  to  write  well  in  prose,  a  student, 
endowed  with  a  talent  for  poetry,  should  wish  to 
try  his  hand  at  this  sort  of  composition,  or  merely 
to  study  its  mechanism,  so  as  to  better  appreciate 
its  merit,  he  will  again  have  recourse  to  double- 
translation,  taking  for  his  model  among  the  best 


THE  ART   OF   WETTING.  157 

poets,  the  one  whose  writings  are  the  most  con- 
genial to  his  taste.  The  passages  of  poetry,  read 
by  the  professor,  as  we  have  already  suggested, 
having  formed  the  student's  ear  to  the  rhythm  and 
versification  peculiar  to  the  language  which  he 
studies,  he  will  find  little  difficulty  in  reproducing 
them,  if  he  is  endowed  with  poetical  discrimina- 
tion. 

The  first  version  in  prose,  which  affords  him 
the  occasion  for  transferring  into  his  style  some 
of  the  poetical  beauties  of  his  model,  will  not  fail 
to  extend  his  powers  of  composition  in  his  own 
language,  while  the  efforts  he  will  make  to  repro- 
duce in  his  second  version  the  figurative  language 
and  the  harmony  of  the  style,  will  render  him 
sensible  of  the  difference  between  the  literal  and 
the  figurative  sense,  between  familiar  and  eleva- 
ted expressions,  between  the  style  of  prose  and 
that  of  poetry.  His  vocabulary  will  also  be  en- 
riched, owing  to  his  being  forced,  by  the  neces- 
sity of  rhyme,  cadence,  and  measure,  to  examine 
many  words  which  differ  in  termination,  quanti- 
ty, accent,  or  number  of  syllables,  though  nearly 
of  the  same  meaning. 

After  having  practised  for  some  time  on  the 
ideas  of   good  writers,   endeavoring    to  imitate 


158  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

their  forms  of  expression,  the  student  may,  with 
every  chance  of  success,  make  an  attempt  at  origi- 
nal composition.  From  the  direct  expression  of 
thought  by  detached  phrases,  the  transition  is 
easy  to  a  connected  discourse.  The  words,  hav- 
ing once  become  the  direct  and  habitual  signs  of 
thought,  will  flow  naturally  from  the  pen,  if  the 
student  exercises  himself  in  the  art  of  writing,  as 
in  the  art  of  speaking,  in  treating  subjects  with 
which  he  has  become  familiar  by  reading  and 
hearing. 

In  general,  all  interesting  and  well-written 
narratives,  that  have  been  read  with  this  object 
in  view,  in  the  foreign  language  itself,  will  pro- 
mote the  student's  progress  by  the  impression 
which  the  direct  reading  will  leave  on  the  mem- 
ory: both  the  form  and  the  substance  are  thus 
equally  retained.  This  practice  in  composition 
should  also,  at  first,  be  combined  with  corre- 
sponding oral  exercises,  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  mutually  assist  each  other,  either  by  the 
pupil's  writing  the  narratives  already  made  viva 
voce,  or  by  relating  to  the  professor  those  which 
have  been  written. 

In  proportion  as  the  learner  advances  in  com- 
position, its  difficulties  should  be  increased   by 


THE   lET    OF   WRITING.  159 

longer  pieces,  with  a  greater  interval  between  the 
reading  and  the  writing,  until,  at  last,  he  can 
write  without  any  preparation.  For  one  who 
has  stored  his  mind  with  various  knowledge  and 
cultivated  his  taste  by  the  assiduous  study  of 
standard  authors,  the  moment  has  come  to  rely 
solely  on  his  own  capabilities.  He  stands  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  position  with  regard  to  the  foreign 
language  as  to  his  own ;  and  his  improvement  in 
both  will  be  secured  by  the  same  means.  He 
will  devote  his  attention,  according  to  circum- 
stances, or  the  peculiar  turn  of  his  mind,  to  the 
epistolary  style,  to  the  relation  of  facts  that  have 
come  to  his  knowledge,  to  the  descriptions  of  ob- 
jects, places,  or  persons,  to  summaries  or  analyses 
of  his  readings,  or  to  any  other  subject  on  which 
he  has  clear  and  accurate  notions. 

"When  reading,  hearing,  phrase-making,  and 
oral  and  written  narration  have,  by  the  reiterated 
association  of  ideas  with  their  signs,  imparted 
the  habit  of  thinking  in  the  foreign  tongue,  as  we 
think  in  our  own,  the  one  will  not  be  more  liable 
to  be  forgotten  than  the  other.  Both  languages, 
equally  making  one  with  the  thought,  will  adhere 
with  the  same  tenacity  to  our  individuality,  and 
will  be  permanently  assimilated  with  the  elements 


160  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

of  our  intellectual  constitution.  The  organs 
themselves  through  which  this  point  is  gained, 
the  eye  and  ear,  the  instruments  of  curiosity,  the 
tongue  and  hand,  the  instruments  of  imitation, 
contract  habits  corresponding  to  those  of  the 
faculties  which  direct  their  action. 

The  habits  of  language  thus  acquired  will  be 
infinitely  more  correct  than  those  which  an  adult 
derives  from  a  residence  abroad.  The  student 
who  follows  our  method,  having  only  good  models 
before  him,  either  in  his  books  or  in  his  master, 
runs  less  risk  of  being  misled  than  a  person  in  a 
country  the  language  of  which  he  is  yet  unable 
to  speak.  Indeed,  in  this  last  case,  being  fre- 
quently thrown  into  the  company  of  people  who 
speak  incorrectly,  and  being  under  the  necessity 
of  expressing  his  wants,  of  communicating  his 
sentiments,  before  he  has  heard  the  words  and 
phrases  often  enough  to  be  able  to  reproduce 
them  accurately,  a  person  must  make  mistakes 
which,  being  seldom  corrected,  become  habits 
never  to  be  got  rid  of.  As  a  compensation,  how- 
ever, he  gains  in  facility  what  he  loses  in  correct- 
ness. 

Without  unfolding  the  means  by  which  a 
correct  style  is  gained,  as  it  is  the  very  same 


THE  AKT  OF   WETTING.  161 

which  is  required  to  attain  a  similar  end  in  his 
own  language,  we  will  repeat  our  previous  assertion 
that  the  art  of  writing  well  is  the  fruit  of  assidu- 
ous study  of  great  writers,  and  of  continuous 
efforts  to  imitate  them,  merely  observing  that  it 
will  be  sufficient,  in  ordinary  cases,  to  take  for 
models  texts  in  a  simple  and  familiar  style,  as 
being  the  best  suited  for  conversation  and  letter- 
writing. 

Beyond  this  kind  of  composition  we  do  not 
see  any  necessity  for  striving  after  a  high  degree 
of  perfection  in  writing  any  language  but  one's 
own.  The  most  eminent  Latinists  are  not  those 
who  write  their  own  language  best :  and  never 
has  the  Latin  versification  of  the  college  made  a 
good  English  poet.  The -marked  difference  which 
characterizes  the  genius  of  languages  will  scarce- 
ly allow  any  one  to  write  two  in  perfection.  Such 
is  the  force  of  habit  that  if  we  express  our  thoughts 
in  a  foreign  idiom,  to  the  exclusion  of  our  own, 
the  forms  peculiar  to  it  will  at  times  find  their 
way  into  the  latter,  both  in  speaking  and  in  writ- 
ing. It  is  therefore  advisable  to  restrict  rather 
than  to  encourage  composition  in  a  foreign  idiom. 

In  support  of  this  truth  we  will  quote  Yol- 
taire,  who  speaks  from  experience :  "  On  my  re- 


162  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

turn  from  England,"  he  says  in  a  letter  to  Lord 
Bolingbroke,  "when  I  had  passed  nearly  two 
years  in  constant  study  of  your  language,  I  found 
myself  embarrassed  while  composing  a  French 
tragedy.  I  had  almost  accustomed  myself  to 
think  in  English :  I  felt  that  the  words  of  my 
own  language  no  longer  presented  themselves  to 
my  imagination  with  the  same  abundance  as  be- 
fore :  it  was  like  a  stream,  whose  source  had  been 
turned  aside ;  much  time  and  effort  were  required 
to  make  it  flow  again  in  its  original  bed." 

Grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic,  will  find  their 
application  as  the  complement  of  linguistic  stud- 
ies. To  possess  a  critical  acquaintance  with  a 
language,  we  must  have  studied  its  genius,  have 
become  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  principles 
which  form  its  groundwork,  and  have  analyzed 
expression  in  its  relations  with  thought. 

The  exercises  above  recommended  having  their 
source  in  two  powerful  instincts,  curiosity  and 
imitation,  and  being,  as  reason  prescribes,  the 
actual  practice  of  the  arts  to  be  acquired,  success 
is  infallible.  They  possess  another  great  advan- 
tage, they  are  admirably  adapted  for  public  in- 
struction, inasmuch  as  they  afford  to  students  of 
different  degrees  of  proficiency  the  means  of  de- 


THE  ART   OF   WETTING.  163 

riving  equal  benefit  from  the  master's  lessons, 
without  loss  of  time  for  any  of  them.  This  ad- 
vantage is  especially  owing  to  the  fact  that,  as  the 
pupils  never  perform  in  his  presence  the  work 
they  can  do  by  themselves,  he  thus  has  time  to 
teach  them  what  they  could  not  learn  without  his 
aid.  Our  method  thus  assigns  to  both  pupils  and 
master,  their  proper  sphere  of  action.  The  for- 
mer learn  the  written  language,  the  latter  teaches 
the  spoken  language. 

This  method  dispenses  with  all  the  prepara- 
tory lessons,  which  only  delay  the  practice  of  the 
language.  Beading-books  suffice  for  all  the  re- 
quirements of  study.  More  than  one  volume  at 
a  time  is  never  required  for  practising  the  differ- 
ent exercises  it  prescribes ;  and  this  is  not  one  of 
its  least  advantages.  A  page,  selected  at  random, 
in  the  first  volume  that  comes  to  hand,  offers  the 
professor  all  the  facilities  for  exercising  his  pupils 
in  the  practice  of  the  four  arts,  for  teaching  them 
orthography,  pronunciation,  grammar,  in  short, 
every  thing  that  relates  to  composition  in  the  two 
languages. 

It  renders  the  learning  of  a  language  accessi- 
ble to  adults  as  well  as  to  children,  to  the  poor  as 
well  as  to  the  rich,  by  supplying  means  of  self-in- 


164  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

struction,  and  requiring  the  help  of  a  master  only 
for  the  second  half  of  the  language,  when  the 
learner  already  knows  the  first  and  most  impor- 
tant half. 

Many  persons  actively  engaged  in  business 
feel  the  want  of  knowing  a  foreign  language, 
who  are  deterred  from  the  attempt  to  learn  it,  on 
account  of  the  tedious  labor  of  the  dictionary, 
and  of  all  the  drudgery  imposed  by  routine  as  an 
indispensable  preliminary.  If  the  student,  after 
spending  much  time  on  these  unprofitable  tasks, 
is  compelled  to  discontinue  them,  he  finds  that  he 
has  learned  nothing  really  useful,  and  retains  only 
the  painful  recollection  of  the  labor  and  fatigue 
he  has  gone  through. 

By  following  simple  and  natural  processes  in 
harmony  with  the  end  proposed,  such  as  those  we 
recommend,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  the 
maturity  of  reason,  even  at  an  advanced  age,  a 
person  might,  in  six  months,  acquire  what  is  use- 
ful in  a  living  language,  better  than  a  boy  of 
ten  could  in  as  many  years,  by  the  ordinary  rou- 
tine. The  greatest  linguists,  from  the  Scaligers  to 
Elihu  Burritt,  the  learned  blacksmith  of  Massa- 
chusetts, who  is  said  to  have  learned  above  twenty 
languages,  have  nearly  all  acquired  them  in  the 


TIIE  AET  OF  WETTING.  165 

maturity  of  life,  and  without  masters,  by  follow- 
ing a  method  similar  to  the  one  we  have  sketched. 
Plutarch,  who  began  the  study  of  Latin  late 
in  life,  made  rapid  progress,  because,  as  he  him- 
self says,  his  knowledge  of  things  enabled  him  to 
enter  into  the  thought  of  the  writers.  Themisto- 
£les,  also  advanced  in  years,  learned  Persian  so 
well  in  one  year,  says  his  biographer,  that  he  used 
to  converse  with  the  King  of  Persia  on  state 
affairs  better  than  the  Persians  themselves.  Cato 
the  Censor  learned  Greek  in  his  old  age,  and 
knew  it  thoroughly.  Alfieri  began  the  study  of 
that  language  at  forty-eight,  and  attained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  Hellenist.  Sir  William  Jones  had 
passed  his  thirtieth  year  when  he  began  to  learn 
Eastern  languages,  in  which  he  is  known  to  have 
been  deeply  versed.  Ogilby,  the  English  transla- 
tor of  Yirgil  and  Homer,  had  been  a  dancing- 
master;  he  did  not  know  a  word  of  Latin  at 
forty,  nor  of  Greek  at  fifty-four.  Maugard,  a 
distinguished  man  of  letters,  became,  after  three 
months  of  study,  a  successful  teacher  of  Italian 
and  Spanish,  which  he  had  learned  in  his  sixtieth 
year.  The  celebrated  Dr.  Johnson  undertook, 
when  seventy  years  of  age,  the  study  of  Dutch, 
with  a  view  to  test  his  capability  to  learn :  the 


166  TIIE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

success  of  the  experiment  fully  satisfied  him  that 
the  powers  of  his  mind  were  still  unimpaired. 
Eichard  Cumberland,  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-three,  learned  the  Coptic  lan- 
guage, in  order  to  read  the  Coptic  New  Testa- 
ment, which  Dr.  Wilkins  had  just  published. 

It  is  fortunate  for  the  perfectibility  of  man 
that  the  practical  knowledge  of  languages  is  so 
easily  acquired ;  for  one  of  the  principles  of  his 
nature,  sociability,  impels  him  instinctively  to 
enter  into  communion  with  his  fellow-creatures 
by  the  free  manifestation  of  his  thoughts.  "What- 
ever thwarts  this  instinct  is  an  obstacle  to  his 
improvement. 

Humanity  is  endowed  with  capacities  which  can 
be  perfected  only  by  the  combination  of  minds : 
the  whole  mass  is  animated  with  a  life  which  lie3 
dormant  in  the  isolated  individual.  A  powerful 
impulse  will  therefore  be  given  to  the  progress  of 
civilization,  by  introducing  into  our  schools  and 
colleges  a  better  system  of  linguistic  teaching, 
which  will  bring  nations  into  intellectual  inter- 
course. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON     MENTAL     CULTURE. 

•    "  L'etude  des  langues  est  beaucoup  plus  favorable  aux  progres 
des  facultes  dans  l'enfance  que  celle  des  mathematiques." 

Madame  de  Stael. 

"  The  study  of  languages  is  much  more  favorable  to  the  prog- 
ress of  the  faculties  in  childhood  than  that  of  mathematics." 

There  are  two  distinct  categories  of  students, 
those  who  learn  a  language  for  purely  practical 
purposes,  and  those  who  learn  it  as  a  "branch  of 
education,  either  for  the  development  of  their 
mind,  or  as  a  means  of  extending  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  national  idiom. 

To  the  students  of  the  first  category,  those 
whom  an  intellect,  already  ripe,  inclines  to  a  vol- 
untary study,  the  practical  method,  as  explained 
in  the  preceding  pages,  especially  commends  it- 
self.    - 

It  is  more  especially  profitable  to  those  who, 
having  completed  their  academical  education,  are 
preparing  to  embrace  professions  for  which  the 


168  TIIE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

knowledge  of  a  foreign  language  is  indispensable, 
and  for  those,  whatever  be  their  age,  who,  from 
taste  or  necessity,  wish  to  enter  on  new  fields  of 
study,  or  to  enlarge  the  circle  of  their  social  rela- 
tions ;  but  who,  engaged  in  avocations  which 
leave  them  little  leisure,  are  averse  to  collateral 
studies,  of  which  they  do  not  see  the  necessity. 

As  regards  the  second  category,  including  the 
youth  of  our  colleges,  more  especially  children 
under  twelve  or  thirteen,  the  comparative  method 
offers  them  all  the  means  of  attaining  the  end 
toward  which  their  instructor  ought  to  direct 
their  attention,  and  which  requires,  on  his  part,  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  language,  as  well  as 
of  the  foreign  idiom. 

By  oral  instruction  which  bears  on  all  the 
parts  of  the  study,  he  will  take  an  active  part  in 
all  the  exercises,  which  will  become,  under  his 
direction,  a  real  course  of  intellectual  gymnastics. 
This  is,  for  children,  the  most  important  part  of 
scholastic  education.  They  have  abundance  of 
time  before  them,  and  have  no  valid  reasons  for 
hurrying  in  the  acquisition  of  a  second  language ; 
for  they  would  probably  forget  it,  before  they  had 
occasion  to  use  it. 

The  practical  method,  as  it  requires  little  men- 


ON  MENTAL   CULTUKE.  169 

tal  effort,  leads  rapidly  and  exclusively  to  the 
mastery  of  a  language ;  the  comparative  process, 
on  the  contrary,  by  presenting  difficulties  which 
unceasingly  call  the  reflective  powers  into  action, 
inures  the  learners  to  self-direction  and  intellec- 
tual labor,  which  constitute  its  chief  merit  as  an 
instrument  of  moral  and  mental  discipline,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  promotes  advancement  in  the 
national  language. 

The  first  is  best  suited  for  modern  languages, 
the  second  for  the  ancient. 

The  noble  pages  of  history,  eloquence,  and 
poetry,  which  the  dead  languages  exhibit,  though 
few  in  number,  will  always  stand  as  models  of 
excellence.  The  beauties  with  which  they  abound 
cultivate  and  purify  the  taste,  while  reflection 
finds  ample  exercise  in  the  consideration  of 
thoughts  and  facts  relating  to  an  order  of  things 
above  the  homely  realities  of  ordinary  life. 

Placed  beyond  the  influence  of  caprice,  the 
dead  languages,  so  long  as  they  are  accepted  as 
the  groundwork  of  scholastic  studies,  and  the 
test  of  excellence  in  literary  composition,  will 
tend  to  check  the  constant  fluctuation  of  living 
languages.  The  Greek  and  Latin  classics  are  in 
literature,  what  the  works  of  the  old  masters  are 


170  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

in  painting.  The  love  of  novelty  may  for  a  time 
draw  modern  nations  from  the  true  principles  of 
taste ;  the  study  of  the  immortal  monuments  of 
antiquity  will  always  bring  them  back  to  the 
true  standard. 

Ancient  languages  must  continue  to  occupy  a 
large  share  of  attention  in  the  intellectual  educa- 
tion of  boys  who  are  destined  to  pursuits  which 
depend  on  literary  acquirements.  It  is  a  nar- 
row view  to  consider  them  as  useful  only  to  the 
learned  professions.  Acquaintance  with  them  is 
beneficial  not  only  to  the  clergyman,  the  physi- 
cian, and  the  lawyer,  but  also  to  the  archaeologist, 
the  philosopher,  the  man  of  letters,  and  the  states- 
man, for  they  are  the  interpreters  of  ancient 
monuments,  the  original  receptacles  of  our  laws, 
the  source  of  our  modern  dialects,  and  the 
bond  which  unites  European  nations  with  one 
another,  and  with  antiquity.  Their  study  in- 
volves that  intellectual  discipline  which  gives  the 
greatest  possible  development  to  the  faculties  of 
man,  and  is  the  common  ground  on  which  the 
noblest  intellects  are  brought  into  contact. 

Mathematics,  far  from  being,  as  common]y 
believed,  the  best  logical  exercise,  would,  if 
studied  exclusively,  rather  tend  to  disqualify  the 


ON   MENTAL   CULTURE.  171 

mind  for  general  reasoning.  They  confine  the 
student  to  a  narrower  circle  of  mental  exercises 
than  languages  and  philosophy;  they  habituate 
him  to  a  routine  of  argumentation  which  presents 
little  variety;  they  awaken  his  judgment  to 
the  relation  of  quantity,  but,  neglecting  quality 
and  all  other  important  relations,  they  leave  in 
abeyance  the  powers  of  the  understanding  which 
are  most  useful  in  the  ordinary  circumstances  of 
life. 

In  the  study  of  languages  the  mind  is  engaged 
as  in  the  world;  it  is  formed  to  all  modes  of 
reasoning,  to  all  kinds  of  argumentation,  by  the 
reading  and  hearing  of  serious  subjects.  The 
reading  of  good  books  is  a  practical  logic  in  the 
exercises  intended  to  teach  speaking  and  writing ; 
we  find  the  same  dealings  with  words  and  ideas 
as  in  social  intercourse,  the  same  caution  and 
discrimination  between  rules  and  exceptions,  the 
same  exercises  of  conception,  imitation,  and  in- 
vention; finally,  the  same  methods  of  induction, 
analogy,  and  analysis. 

At  every  step  in  mathematical  demonstrations 
there  is  a  constant  perspicuity,  a  straight  and 
limited  path  marked  out,  from  which  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  wander.     But  in  the  expression  of 


172  THE  STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

thought,  and  in  literary  investigations,  the  learner 
has  to  feel  his  way,  reflect,  compare,  judge,  apply 
his  own  experience,  weigh  probabilities,  disen- 
tangle networks  of  inconsistencies,  and  lay  bare 
sophistical  plausibilities.  In  this  necessity  for  a 
diversified  and  complicated  action  of  the  reason- 
ing powers  consists  the  chief  value  of  classical 
and  literary  studies. 

The  learning  of  languages  embraces  thought 
and  its  expression.  The  operations  of  the  mind 
may  indeed  be  said  to  be  identical  with  the  use 
of  language.  The  various  acquirements  which 
constitute  the  complete  possession  of  a  foreign 
idiom  afford,  through  the  exercises  indispensable 
for  their  attainment,  the  means  of  cultivating  at- 
tention and  raising  the  intellectual  powers  from 
their  original  state  to  the  highest  degree  of  im- 
provement. The  mental  discipline  generated  by 
a  rational  method  begins  with  those  mysterious 
lessons  by  which  the  learner  associates  signs  with 
ideas,  and  continues  through  the  whole  course  of 
the  study,  by  means  of  critical  explanations, 
translation,  reading  of  foreign  works,  and  analysis 
of  their  style.  The  disclosure  of  the  thoughts  and 
sentiments  of  good  writers  will  gratify  his  curi- 
osity, excite  his  sympathies,  improve  his  taste, 


ON   MENTAL   CULTURE.  173 

invigorate  his  judgment,  enrich  his  memory,  and 
enlarge  his  understanding. 

The  continual  comparison  of  two  idioms 
which  results  from  one  being  acquired  through 
the  other,  keeps  observation  and  reflection  con- 
stantly on  the  alert.  But,  as  we  can  compare 
only  such  things  as  we  know,  the  comparative 
method  will  not  produce  all  its  fruits,  unless  we 
possess  the  art  of  reading  the  foreign  language. 
Then  only  shall  we  be  able  to  establish,  with  re- 
gard to  thought  and  style,  an  interesting  and 
profitable  parallel  between  the  native  and  the 
foreign  writers.  "We  therefore  cannot  acquire 
that  art  too  soon  in  the  ancient  as  well  as  in  the 
modern  languages. 

To  advance  safely  in  reading,  children  as  yet 
incapable  of  self-direction,  should  be  assisted  in 
all  the  investigations  to  which  translation  leads. 
They  will  be  told  the  true  meaning  of  idioms,  the 
different  acceptations  of  words,  and  the  difference 
of  import  between  those  called  synonymes.  They 
will  be  assisted  in  rendering  faithfully  the  origi- 
nal text,  and  in  rendering  it  conformably  to  the 
genius  of  their  own  tongue.  By  exercising  them 
in  comparing  this  text  with  the  interpretation 
which  accompanies  it,  the  professor  will  clear  up 


174  THE    STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

their  doubts,  explain  irregularities,  and  enable 
them  to  overcome  all  the  difficulties  that  are 
presented  by  the  difference  of  construction  in  the 
two  languages. 

As  the  dead  languages  are  no  longer  used  for 
the  oral  exchange  of  thought,  the  speaking  ex- 
ercises will  be  set  aside,  which  will  allow  more 
time  to  be  devoted  to  the  explanation  and  trans- 
lation of  authors.  This  branch  of  the  study  as- 
sumes an  importance  which  it  cannot  have  in 
living  languages,  and  which  will  prove  all  the 
more  profitable  to  the  pupils  in  proportion  to  the 
skill  of  their  instructor  in  their  native  tongue, 
and  to  the  extent  and  soundness  of  his  informa- 
tion. 

If  translation  is  objectionable  as  a  means  of 
understanding  the  foreign  text,  it  is  otherwise, 
when  considered  as  an  exercise,  either  in  oral  or 
written  composition  :  it  then  becomes  a  powerful 
auxiliary  for  improving  a  learner  in  his  native 
idiom,  and  for  exercising  him  in  improvisation, 
from  the  moment  he  possesses  the  art  of  reading 
the  foreign  language.  He  thus  increases  his 
native  vocabulary  by  the  use  of  words  which 
were  not  previously  familiar  to  him. 

Aided  by  careful  study  of  national  writers  and 


ON  MENTAL   CULTURE.  175 

orators,  oral  translation  at  sight,  if  continued  for 
some  time,  will  prove  a  better  preparation  than 
rules  for  acquiring  that  magic  power — extempore 
speaking — which  instantaneously  calls  up  the 
most  appropriate  terms,  and  suits  the  form  of 
expression  to  the  idea. 

Written  translation  is  preferable  to  oral  for 
forming  a  good  style,  and  acquiring  great  powers 
of  expression  in  the  national  language ;  for  the 
necessity  of  reading  on,  in  order  to  grasp  the 
subject,  does  not  allow  time  to  polish  our  phrase- 
ology, or  to  seek  the  forms  of  speech  which  best 
conform  to  the  genius  of  our  language.  In  the 
first  version  of  the  double-translation,  we  practise 
the  art  of  writing  under  favorable  conditions; 
because  we  can  then  bestow  on  this  work  all  the 
reflection  required  for  the  choice  of  words,  their 
idiomatic  arrangements  and  the  logical  connec- 
tion of  ideas. 

"It  is  by  translating,"  says  De  Gerando, 
"  that  young  people  learn  best  all  the  laws  of  the 
art  of  writing."  D'Alembert  also  says :  "  If  you 
wish  to  be  one  day  translated,  begin  yourself  by 
translating.  The  work  of  translation  will  yield  a 
rich  harvest  of  principles  and  ideas,  and  prove  an 
excellent  school  in  the  art  of  writing." 


176  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

He  who  attempts  composition  without  first 
laying  in  a  large  provision  of  knowledge,  will  at 
best  deal  out  none  but  commonplace  ideas,  and 
conceal  poverty  of  thought  under  pomp  of  phrase- 
ology. But  a  second  language  presents  an  in- 
exhaustible source  of  interesting  compositions, 
which,  while  they  serve  as  models  for  the  manner 
of  treating  a  subject,  afford  by  translation  the 
best  means  of  practising  the  art  of  writing. 

In  translating  from  a  standard  work  a  learner 
habituates  himself  to  express  sound  ideas:  he  is 
thereby  led  to  reflect  on  subjects  which  he  had 
not  previously  considered,  and  his  sphere  of 
thought  is  enlarged,  as  is  also  his  power  of  ex- 
pression ;  for  it  is  more  difficult  to  render  the 
ideas  of  others  than  one's  own.  In  original  essays 
a  learner  is  not  always  completely  master  of  his 
subject,  and  is  apt  sometimes  to  modify  the  ideas 
as  they  arise  in  the  mind  to  suit  them  to  his 
scanty  stock  of  words.  Translation,  by  binding 
him  to  the  particular  ideas  of  the  author,  teaches 
him  to  overcome  difficulties;  original  composi- 
tion, by  leaving  him  the  option  of  both  the  sub- 
stance and  the  form,  only  teaches  him  to  avoid 
them.  At  a  later  period,  he  will  experience  no 
difficulty  in  expressing  his  own  ideas  in  the  native 


ON  MENTAL   CULTUEE.  177 

idiom,  when  lie  is  able  to  render  accurately  those 
of  the  great  writers  of  another  language. 

"With  these  models  before  him,  the  professoi 
can,  without  difficulty,  familiarize  his  pupils  with 
all  that  gives  precision,  force,  elegance,  and  har- 
mony to  composition,  with  all  that  can  improve 
their  taste  or  exercise  their  judgment.  "It  is 
necessary,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "to  acquire 
correct  habits  of  composition  in  our  own  lan- 
guage, first  by  studying  the  best  writers,  and 
next  by  translating  copiously  into  it  .  ...  A 
man  will  speak  well  in  proportion  as  he  has  writ- 
ten much."  Cicero  tells  us  that  he  owed  his 
success  as  a  public  speaker  to  his  having  trans- 
lated much  from  the  Greek  orators. 

Translation,  in  addition  to  its  special  merit  as 
a  means  of  extending  the  power  of  expression, 
presents  advantages  as  an  intellectual  exercise, 
that  are  not  to  be  obtained  from  writing  in  a  lan- 
guage that  is  as  yet  but  little  known.  Ascertain- 
ing the  precise  meaning  of  a  foreign  author, 
and  selecting  the  words  and  forms  of  speech  in 
the  native  tongue  which  most  exactly  convey 
his  thoughts,  are  operations  eminently  adapted 
to  discipline  the  mind.  Before  the  learner 
ventures  to  translate  the  foreign  text,  he  must 


178  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

have  fully  apprehended  the  ideas  of  the  author 
and  have  made  them  his  own,  by  going  with  him 
over  the  same  fields  of  investigation.  It  is  only 
when  he  has  a  clear  conception  of  them  that  he 
can  at  all  think  of  giving  expression  to  them. 

This  second  operation  again  brings  into  action 
his  mental  powers  and  all  his  resources  of  lan- 
guage: he  is  led  to  examine  why  one  term  has 
been  selected  in  preference  to  another,  to  dis- 
tinguish what  propositions  are  principal,  what 
secondary,  and  to  ascertain  what  is  their  mutual 
dependence.  As  almost  every  word  may  be 
translated  in  different  ways,  and  every  sentence 
in  different  styles,  his  discrimination  and  sagacity 
are  constantly  exercised  in  selecting  the  native 
expressions  most  suitable  in  each  particular  case. 
He  must  exert  his  imagination  and  judgment  not 
to  overcharge  his  author's  meaning,  nor  to  fall 
short  of  it ;  he  must  be  well  imbued  with  the 
peculiar  energy  and  grace  of  his  model,  to  be 
able  to  transfuse  the  same  qualities  into  his  own 
style ;  and  whether  he  succeed  or  fail,  the  actual 
labor  of  the  attempt  will  be  beneficial  to  him. 

In  the  efforts  made  by  the  translator  to  ren- 
der the  original  text  clearly  and  idiomatically,  he 
corrects,  analyzes,  compares,  and  harmonizes  his 


ON  MENTAL   CULTURE.  179 

phrases.  Thus  he  observes,  reflects,  judges:  in 
one  word,  he  learns  to  think. 

Translation,  to  be  of  any  benefit  to  learners 
as  yet  little  versed  in  their  own  language,  must 
be  made  under  the  master's  guidance:  he  will 
direct  them  in  the  choice  of  words,  the  use  of 
figures,  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  periods, 
and  all  the  elements  of  a  good  style.  For  this 
purpose  he  must  himself  possess  an  accurate 
and  extensive  knowledge  of  his  pupils'  language. 
Persevering  in  oral  translation  under  the  direc- 
tion of  an  enlightened  instructor  would  be  more 
generally  useful  to  young  people  than  aiming  at 
direct  reading,  an  exercise  tending  exclusively  to 
forwarding  them  in  the  foreign  language.  Im- 
provement in  the  national  idiom,  for  which  the 
study  of  a  second  language  is  so  desirable,  must 
always  be  kept  in  view.  Classical  instruction  is 
most  favorable  to  the  attainment  of  this  object : 
hence,  every  lesson  in  Greek  or  Latin  should  be 
made  a  lesson  in  English. 

In  ordinary  circumstances,  the  classical  pro- 
fessor, who  is  necessarily  much  better  acquainted 
with  the  language  of  his  pupils,  which  is  his  own, 
than  with  the  Latin  and  Greek  which  he  teaches, 
can  make  the  latter  subservient  to  their  improve- 


180  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

ment  in  the  vernacular  more  effectually  than 
could  be  done  through  living  idioms  by  foreign- 
ers, who  are  seldom  well  versed  in  that  language. 
A  great  difference,  therefore,  arises  in  the  mode 
of  proceeding:  the  study  of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages is  essentially  a  means  of  extending  one's 
knowledge  of  the  native  tongue  ;  but  since  little 
assistance  can  be  obtained  from  foreign  teachers 
toward  any  considerable  advancement  in  the 
latter,  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  it  becomes 
indispensable  as  a  groundwork  for  mastering  a 
foreign  living  language.  The  ends  to  be  attained 
by  studying  these  two  categories  of  languages 
differ  essentially :  the  dead  languages  are  learned 
for  the  sake  of  the  national  idiom,  the  living  lan- 
guages for  their  own  sake.  These,  as  necessary 
vehicles  of  thought,  require  the  ideas  to  be  direct- 
ly associated  with  the  words,  a  process  unsuited 
to  the  dead  languages,  which  prove  beneficial  to 
learners  only  by  being  studied  through  the  native 
tongue.  The  practical  and  the  comparative 
methods  cannot  be  followed  simultaneously.  The 
adoption  of  one  implies  the  rejection  of  the  other. 
Those  innovators  accordingly  commit  an  egre- 
gious blunder,  who  propose  to  substitute  the 
modern  for  the  ancient  languages  in  the  instruc- 


ON  MENTAL   CULTURE.  181 

tion  of  youth.  Although  English,  French,  Italian, 
and  German,  may  fairly  compete  with  the  latter 
in  force,  lucidity,  and  gracefulness  of  expression, 
at  the  same  time  that  they  far  surpass  them 
in  the  number  and  importance  of  the  "benefits 
which  they  confer  through  life  on  their  votaries, 
still  they  can  never  supersede  them.  But,  were 
such  a  change  to  take  place,  foreigners,  who  would 
consequently  become  the  most  competent  profes- 
sors in  what  would  then  be  the  chief  department 
of  collegiate  instruction  and  the  best  judges  of 
literary  merit,  must  be  placed  at  the  head  of 
academical  establishments,  and  invested  with  the 
highest  university  honors.  This  would  be  a 
complete  anomaly,  a  state  of  things  altogether 
incompatible  with  the  existing  form  of  literary 
institutions  and  repugnant  to  national  feelings. 

The  practice  of  writing  the  dead  languages 
should  be  indulged  in  very  sparingly  in  public 
instruction,  the  more  so  as  it  consumes  a  consider- 
able portion  of  time,  and  thus  unreasonably  and 
unprofitably  lengthens  the  period  of  classical 
studies.  The  attention  of  learners  ought  to  be 
confined  to  what  is  really  useful  in  these  studies, 
namely,  the  reading  and  analysis  of  the  great 
writers  of  antiquity.     It  is  by  reflecting  on  their 


182  THE   STUDY  OF  LANGUAGES. 

thoughts  and  their  style ;  it  is  especially  by  trans- 
ferring, through  translation  or  imitation,  thei) 
beauties  into  the  national  idiom,  and  not  by  cari- 
caturing them  in  their  own,  that  classical  instruc- 
tion may  be  productive  of  real  advantage,  that 
the  understanding  may  be  exercised,  and  a  com- 
mand of  the  native  tongue  secured. 

Depth  of  learning  in  ancient  literature  is  far 
from  being  the  test  of  excellence  in  the  national 
language.  In  a  rational  course  of  instruction  the 
national  classics  should  be  studied  as  much  as 
those  of  antiquity.  To  know  Latin  and  Greek  is 
a  great  intellectual  luxury,  but  to  know  one's  own 
language  is  an  intellectual  necessity. 

In  the  instruction  of  youth  the  national  tongue 
should  hold  a  preeminence,  which,  until  now,  has 
been  denied  to  it ;  for  it  is  more  particularly  the 
instrument  of  the  mind's  operations,  the  record 
of  its  stores,  the  manifestation  of  our  feelings,  our 
affections,  our  intellectuality.  Its  writers  and 
orators,  its  genius  and  resources,  should,  among 
a  people  careful  of  their  own  dignity,  occupy 
young  persons  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest 
period  of  scholastic  instruction.  It  is  in  that 
tongue  that  they  should  be  taught  to  think,  to 
speak,  and  to  write.     To  it  belongs  by  right  the 


ON   MENTAL   CULTURE.  183 

prize  of  excellence  adjudged  by  the  old  universi- 
ties to  the  Latin  tongue.  It  should  be  considered 
more  honorable,  as  it  is  more  consistent  and  more 
useful,  to  speak  and  write  English  like  the  best 
English  and  American  speakers  and  writers,  than 
Latin  like  Cicero  and  Tacitus. 

.  In  the  private  affairs  of  life,  as  in  political  or 
international  questions,  he  who  speaks  or  writes 
the  best  will  always  gain  an  ascendency  over  his 
fellow-citizens.  Speech  is  power.  The  great  end 
of  classical  and  literary  education  ought  to  be  to 
confer  this  power,  the  most  useful,  the  most  de- 
lightful, the  most  admirable  of  human  acquire- 
ments. 

An  enlightened  American  teaching  a  foreign 
living  language,  which  he  only  knows  how  to 
read,  would  still  have  a  noble  task  before  him,  if 
he  endeavored,  through  translation,  to  improve 
his  pupils  in  their  own  idiom.  He  would  be 
able,  better  than  a  foreigner,  to  ascertain,  by 
their  manner  of  translating,  whether  they  really 
understand  their  author. 

Direct  reading  and  hearing  will,  also,  like 
translating,  aid  in  cultivating  in  youth  the  two- 
fold talent  of  speaking  and  composing  in  the 
national  language,  if  the  professor  makes  them 


184:  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

repeat  viva  voce  or  in  writing  what  they  have 
read  or  heard  in  the  foreign  idiom.  This  exer- 
cise will  not  only  test  their  diligence,  but  will 
also,  nnder  his  direction,  be  the  means  of  ac- 
quiring a  ready  delivery  and  great  power  ol 
expression.  On  the  other  hand,  under  the  ex 
pectation  that  they  will  have  to  give  an  account 
of  what  they  read  or  hear,  they  will  read  and 
listen  more  carefully,  and  will  thus  more  firmlj 
impress  on  their  minds  the  subjects  brought  under 
their  notice. 

Narration  exercises  the  intellectual  memory, 
that  which  proceeds  from  understanding  the  sub- 
ject and  rests  on  the  connection  of  the  ideas,  on 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  and  on  that  of 
premises  and  consequences.  This  noble  faculty 
plays  a  far  higher  part  in  our  mental  organiza- 
tion than  mechanical  memory,  or  recollection  of 
words  by  their  accidental  collocation,  which, 
having  nothing  to  do  with  the  judgment,  con- 
sists in  retaining  and  repeating  words  in  a  given 
order,  rather  than  in  recalling  ideas  by  their 
logical  concatenation. 

In  written  as  well  as  in  oral  compositions 
founded  on  imitation,  the  powers  of  observation, 
reflection,  and  judgment,  are  constantly  brought 


ON  MENTAL   CULTUKE.  185 

into  activity  by  the  necessity  of  studying  models, 
comparing  them  with  their  copies,  and  discrimi- 
nating between  different  forms  of  expression  and 
the  different  ways  of  treating  a  subject. 

In  original  compositions,  those  of  a  purely 
narrative  character,  resting  on  the  chain  of  inci- 
dents, exercise  more  especially  memory  and  im- 
agination ;  whereas,  descriptions  and  dissertations, 
without  rejecting  the  aid  of  these  two  faculties, 
call  for  higher  intellectual  powers:  the  first  re- 
quires accurate  investigation  of  things  and  nice 
discrimination  in  classifying  the  subject;  the 
second  depends  chiefly  on  a  clear  understanding 
and  strict  attention  to  logical  relations.  The 
more  minute  the  description  and  the  more  philo- 
sophical the  dissertation,  the  greater  will  be  the 
demand  on  the  reflective  and  the  reasoning 
powers. 

The  double-translation,  by  placing  in  juxta- 
position the  genius  of  two  languages  and  of  two 
nations,  affords  the  professor  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity for  enlightening  his  pupils  on  points  of 
great  interest,  arising  from  the  resemblances  and 
differences  which  are  rendered  obvious  by  this 
twofold  operation. 

The  resemblances  between  two  languages  es- 


186  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

tablisli  the  principles  which  constitute  general  or 
comparative  grammar;  the  differences  between 
them  mark  out  the  rules  of  the  particular  gram- 
mar of  each.  The  comparison  of  several  lan- 
guages, with  a  view  to  ascertain  their  lexico- 
graphic and  grammatical  affinities,  throws  light 
on  their  affiliation,  on  the  migration  of  nations, 
and  on  the  history  of  man.  The  professor,  with- 
out touching  on  considerations  above  the  reach  of 
his  pupils,  will  sometimes  speak  on  these  subjects, 
point  out  the  origin  of  words  and  trace  the  modi- 
fications which  they  have  undergone  in  passing 
from  one  language  to  another. 

If  general  grammar  be  properly  explained  to 
young  persons,  at  a  time  when  the  mind  is  capa- 
ble of  such  a  study,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that 
it  will  open  before  them  a  large  field  on  which 
they  may  exercise  their  reasoning  faculties. 
Rising,  therefore,  with  them  above  the  facts, 
the  generalization  of  which  constitutes  the  art 
of  grammar,  the  professor  will  easily  enter  on  the 
consideration  of  the  universal  laws  which  govern 
languages  and  constitute  the  science  of  gram- 
mar. 

This  high  branch  of  literature  is  too  much 
neglected  in   scholastic    instruction.      Boys    are 


ON  MENTAL   CULTUJRE.  187 

made  to  learn  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and  German 
grammars,  bnt  are  seldom  taught  the  laws  which 
are  common  to  all  languages,  in  contradistinction 
from  those  which  are  peculiar  to  each. 

The  foreigner,  who  is  not  competent  to  give 
this  higher  kind  of  instruction,  and  cannot  im- 
prove his  pupils  in  their  own  language,  from  not 
knowing  it  thoroughly,  should  confine  himself  to 
his  special  sphere,  and  follow  the  processes  which 
we  have  above  described,  in  order  to  give  them  a 
practical  knowledge  of  his  own  language,  so  as  to 
make  it  for  them  an  instrument  of  thought. 

If,  however,  he  is  versed  in  the  grammar  of 
his  own  language  and  in  literary  criticism,  let 
him  occasionally  take  up  one  of  the  standard 
works  which  his  class  have  read,  and,  after 
having  ascertained  that  it  is  perfectly  under- 
stood, let  him  make  them  analyze  it  as  regards 
the  words,  their  nature,  inflections,  roots,  pro- 
nunciation, derivation,  synonymy,  and  different 
acceptations  ;  let  him  assist  them  in  inferring  the 
rules  of  grammar,  from  the  recurrence  of  the 
same  forms  of  expression.  He  will  afterward,  at 
a  more  advanced  stage,  turn  their  attention  to 
style,  point  out  the  force  and  propriety  of  terms, 
the  precision,  elegance,  and  harmony  of  periods, 


188  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

every  thing,  in  short,  which  constitutes  literary 
merit. 

Let  the  professor  guard  against  the  degener- 
ating of  these  considerations  into  mere  parsing, 
an  exercise  which  occupies  so  considerable  a  place 
in  public  instruction,  and  which,  confined,  as  it 
usually  is,  to  merely  technical  terms,  aids  in  no 
way  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  or  to  the 
practical  acquaintance  with  a  language. 

Particular  grammar  is  an  inductive  art ;  and, 
in  all  such  arts,  we  arrive  at  principles  from  facts : 
the  more  numerous  these  are,  the  more  general 
the  rules.  Custom  is  the  law  of  language,  gram- 
mar is  only  its  generalization.  Thus  is  grammar 
made,  and  thus  it  must  be  learned,  from  the  lan- 
guage ;  not  the  language  from  the  grammar. 

All  the  rules  of  grammar  are  in  the  written 
page ;  it  is  the  teacher's  office  to  bring  them  out, 
carefully  avoiding  abstract  formulas,  which  chil- 
dren understand  so  imperfectly  and  forget  so 
easily.  If  the  latter  had  previously  learned  the 
rules,  they  would  be  deprived  of  the  exercise  in 
observation,  comparison,  analogy,  and  generali- 
zation, to  which  reasoning  by  induction  leads. 
Moreover,  rules  which  apply  to  unknown  facts, 
are  pure  abstractions  devoid  of  interest ;  whereas, 


ON  MENTAL   CULTUEE.  189 

the  mind  delights  in  classifying  scattered  notions, 
and  discovering  the  reason  of  known  facts. 

This  inductive  or  analytical  mode  of  studying 
grammar,  similar  to  the  intellectual  process  by 
which  we  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  natural  laws, 
is  the  most  rational  and  the  most  favorable  to 
mental  discipline:  it  consists  in  observing  facts, 
comparing  them,  remarking  their  resemblances 
and  differences,  and  afterward  bringing  into  the 
same  class  all  similar  facts.  Those  which  may  be 
generalized  constitute  the  rules,  and  those  which 
are  not  comprised  within  any  class  form  the  ex- 
ceptions. 

The  exercise  of  phrase-making,  more  especially 
by  multiplying  the  expression  of  thought,  aids  in 
giving  a  practical  knowledge  of  grammar.  The 
construction  of  phrases  after  a  model  is  the  appli- 
cation of  syntax  to  the  expression  of  thought,  for 
there  is  no  phrase  which  does  not  exemplify  some 
rule  of  syntax.  It  may  be  made  by  a  judicious 
instructor  the  source  of  much  grammatical  in- 
formation to  his  pupils.  In  classifying  and  gen- 
eralizing constructions,  formed  on  a  principle  of 
analogy,  the  laws  which  govern  them  are  natu- 
rally evolved  by  induction.  Practice  and  theory 
mutually   aid  each  other,  and  grammar  is  thus 


190  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

learned,  not  by  an  act  of  the  memory,  but  by  an 
act  of  judgment. 

Beneficial  as  these  grammatical  inductions 
may  be  to  a  learner,  he  should  not  be  refused  the 
instrument  which  may  help  him  in  his  observations. 
It  is  not  enough  that  he  should  infer  the  rules  of 
composition  from  the  phraseology :  this  incidental 
way  of  learning  the  grammatical  principles  of  a 
language  would  never  give  him  a  complete  and 
systematic  knowledge  of  them.  A  good  treatise 
on  the  subject  is  indispensable,  if  he  wishes  to 
have  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  theory.  A  few 
months  assiduously  devoted  to  this  study  would 
suffice  to  methodize  and  complete  the  scattered 
notions  of  grammar,  acquired  by  induction ;  and, 
if  he  aspires  to  being  a  grammarian,  he  should 
take  up  different  treatises  on  the  subject,  read, 
compare,  and  judge  for  himself. 

A  familiarity  with  the  national  grammar  will 
be  the  best  preparation  for  a  similar  study  in  the 
foreign  language,  as  the  learner  will  find  in  the 
grammar  of  that  language  the  same  technical 
denominations,  and  the  same  definitions.  It 
renders  more  intelligible  the  explanations  of  the 
professor,  who  is  often  obliged,  even  at  the  outset, 
to  advert  to  grammatical  distinctions. 


ON  MENTAL   CULTURE.  191 

It  also  assists  in  translating  from  the  native 
into  the  foreign  tongne,  because,  in  order  to 
ascertain  what  is  the  foreign  expression  corre- 
sponding to  the  native,  one  must  know  the 
nature  of  the  words  to  be  translated  and  their 
functions  in  the  sentence.  On  a  clear  concep- 
tion, for  example,  of  the  person,  tense,  and  mood 
of  the  English  verb  depends  the  correctness  of 
the  foreign  one.  If  the  learner  has  to  render  in 
French  that  part  of  an  English  verb  which  ends 
in  ed,  he  must  be  able  to  distinguish,  in  every 
case,  whether  that  verb  is  in  the  preterite  or 
past  participle,  since  it  is  differently  translated, 
according  as  it  is  one  or  the  other.  Again,  if 
hut  be  the  word  to  be  rendered  into  French,  he 
must  discriminate  what  part  of  speech  it  is  in 
each  particular  instance ;  that  is,  what  is  its  pre- 
cise import;  because,  in  its  triple  office  of  an 
adverb,  a  preposition,  and  a  conjunction,  it 
admits  of  different  translations,  viz.,  ne  que,  eoa- 
cepte,  mats. 

In  addition  to  words  belonging  to  different 
classes,  there  are  a  great  many  which  admit  of 
various  equivalents  in  other  languages,  according 
as  they  are  used  in  a  literal  or  a  figurative  sense. 
As  a  general  rule,  a  word  is  interpreted  in  another 


192  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

language  in  as  many  ways  as  it  admits  of  differ- 
ent significations. 

Although,  deficiencies  and  irregularities  abound 
in  all  languages,  they  seldom  occur  on  the  same 
occasions  in  any  two  of  them.  No  phrase  is  ren- 
dered literally,  the  constituent  parts  of  which  are, 
in  their  arrangement,  relations,  or  meanings,  in- 
consistent with  the  idea  expressed,  or  with  the 
laws  of  language,  as,  for  example,  the  following 
idioms:  He  was  offered  a  situation  (familiarly 
used  for  a  situation  was  offered  to  him).  How 
do  you  like  the  book  ?  (the  word  how  signifying 
in  what  manner,  and  the  whole  phrase  implying 
that  the  person  questioned  does  like  the  book, 
constitute  a  double  inconsistency  with  the  idea 
meant  to  be  conveyed).  I  wish  I  was  there  now 
(a  past  tense  used  to  mark  the  present).  To  wait 
on,  to  call  upon,  to  hear  from  a  person  (three  verbs 
used  anomalously). 

From  these  observations,  it  is  obvious  that  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  national  idiom  must 
be  a  great  help  toward  acquiring  a  foreign  living 
tongue.  But  classical  education,  which,  as  was 
seen,  is  intended  not  so  much  to  teach  a  second 
language  as  to  improve  young  people  in  their 
own,  does  not  require  any  extensive  knowledge 


ON  MENTAL   CULTURE.  193 

of  the  latter  as  a  preparation:  this  education, 
on  the  contrary,  secures  it,  under  the  direction 
of  an  able  instructor.  "With  his  assistance  all 
grammatical  irregularities  in  the  vernacular,  all 
anomalies  which  might  otherwise  escape  notice, 
are  elicited  by  submitting  them  to  the  analytical 
process  of  translation :  and  the  learner,  being  thus 
led  to  inquire  what  are  the  different  ideas  attached 
to  the  same  words,  and  what  native  expressions  do 
or  do  not  conform  either  to  the  idea  intended  or 
to  the  general  principles  of  grammar,  acquires  a 
habit  of  nice  discrimination  an<^  a  critical  knowl- 
edge of  his  own  idiom. 

Under  any  circumstances,  the  usual  order  of 
study  should  be  altered:  the  foreign  grammar 
must  be  transferred  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
classes,  while  the  national  should  be  taught  as  a 
foundation  for  linguistic  studies ;  the  lower  classes 
might  continue  to  be  denominated  the  grammar 
classes. 

Grammatical  studies,  although  they  do  not 
necessarily  impart  the  power  of  expression  so 
effectually  as  the  imitation  of  the  great  models, 
furnish  the  student  with  the  means  of  entering 
into  the  secrets  of  composition,  of  exploring  the 
mysterious  laws  of  creative  genius,  and  of  sub- 


194  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

mitting  liis  own  productions  to  the  control  of 
reason  and  of  established  principles.  It  is  then 
that  theory  becomes  a  useful  auxiliary  to  practice. 

"When  the  learners  have  completely  mastered 
the  art  of  hearing,  the  professor  should  occasion- 
ally address  them  in  the  foreign  language  on  vari- 
ous subjects  of  instruction.  These  subjects  should 
be  selected  in  reference  to  the  studies  in  which 
they  are  engaged  at  the  time,  and  more  particu- 
larly to  the  higher  departments  of  that  language  ; 
he  may  treat  of  its  genius  and  comparative  merit ; 
investigate  its  origin,  rise,  and  progress;  unfold 
its  importance  as  a  vehicle  of  thought,  or  as  a 
store  of  information ;  comment  critically  on  its 
best  works,  and  examine  its  literature,  considered 
either  absolutely  or  relatively  to  the  national 
literature  of  his  pupils.  Should  he  feel  diffident 
in  extemporaneous  delivery,  he  may  read  to  them 
from  the  most  eminent  writers  in  the  foreign  lan- 
guage passages  which  would  enrich  their  minds 
with  useful  knowledge  and  familiarize  them  with 
a  pure  and  elegant  style. 

In  reading  the  Greek  or  Latin  poets  to  his 
advanced  pupils,  the  professor  should  avail  him- 
self of  the  superiority  of  ancient  prosody,  to  point 
out  the  effects  of  contrasted  sounds,  of  long  and 


OK  MENTAL   CULTURE.  195 

short,  high,  and  low  notes ;  he  should  explain  to 
them  the  principles  of  quantity,  accents,  cadences, 
caesuras,  rhythms,  metres,  pauses,  all  that  consti- 
tutes the  mechanism  of  verse  and  the  melody  of 
language. 

"We  have  seen  that  there  are  three  modes  of 
proceeding  in  learning  languages:  1.  The  ex- 
clusively practical  method,  that  of  the  mother 
tongue.  2.  The  exclusively  comparative  method, 
that  which  suits  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin. 
3.  The  practico-comparative,  that  which  is  re- 
quired for  foreign  living  languages.  The  direct 
association  of  ideas  with  their  signs  is  the  essence 
of  the  first.  Translation  from  either  language 
into  the  other  is  the  essence  of  the  second.  By 
the  third,  the  learner  passes  from  comparison  to 
practice,  from  the  indirect  to  the  direct  use  of  the 
language. 

Although  the  comparative  method  can  never 
completely  secure  the  full  mastery  of  a  language, 
it  will  nevertheless  remain  the  privilege  of  classi- 
cal instruction.  It  is  the  only  one  which  permits 
an  enlightened  professor  to  give  his  pupils  the 
greatest  benefit  of  his  own  acquirements  and  his 
superior  knowledge  of  their  language.  As  for 
the  practico-comparative  method,  while  it  shares 


19G  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

in  the  benefits  of  the  other  two,  its  special  office 
is  to  make  the  foreign  language  available  for  the 
exchange  of  ideas :  it  adds  little  to  man's  intellec- 
tual power. 

Classical  learning,  as  the  most  important  in 
the  education  of  youth,  claims  the  larger  portion 
of  the  time  apportioned  to  literary  studies.  "With 
regard  to  modern  languages,  if  their  study  is  com- 
menced at  a  suitable  age,  eighteen  months  or  two 
years  at  the  utmost  would  suffice  for  gaining  that 
practical  acquaintance  with  one,  which  would 
enable  a  student  to  read  it  with  pleasure  and  con- 
verse in  it  with  ease. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 


ON   KOUTINE. 


"  Gardez-vous  de  la  routine,  c'est  la  mort  de  l'enseignenient." 

Matter. 
"  Beware  of  routine,  it  is  fatal  to  teaching." 

A  method,  in  order  to  be  rational  and  effi- 
cient, must  be  consistent  with  the  end  proposed. 
"VVe  learn  a  foreign  language  for  the  sake  of  mak- 
ing it  the  instrument  of  thought  in  the  interna- 
tional exchange  of  ideas ;  but,  of  the  four  arts  by 
which  this  exchange  is  effected,  the  first  two  are 
indisputably  of  far  higher  importance  and  more 
general  application  than  the  other  two,  both  as  an 
end  and  as  a  means.  The  method  ought  then, 
first,  to  teach  these  two  arts.  Yet,  strange  to  say, 
people  will  persist  in  saying  that  the  principal 
object  in  studying  a  foreign  living  language  is  to 
learn  to  speak  it;  forgetting,  moreover,  that  it 
must  be  understood  before  it  is  spoken,  and  that, 
to  write  well,  one  must  have  read  much. 

This  popular  error  has  given  birth  to  nearly 


198  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

all  the  methods  in  vogue.  For  the  most  part  they 
aim  at  the  rapid  acquirement  of  that  art,  and  of 
that  alone.  Contemning  the  order  and  wise  slow- 
ness of  nature,  they  break  off  the  chain  which 
connects  together  the  four  great  objects  of  a  lan- 
guage, neglect  the  most  useful  part  of  intellectual 
communication,  and  necessarily  resort  to  process- 
es, which  are  at  war  with  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  language,  the  laws  of  our  mental  organi- 
zation, and  the  requirements  of  social  intercourse. 
~We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  at  the  al- 
most universal  failure  of  linguistic  teaching. 

Grammar,  exercises,  reading  aloud,  mnemonic 
lessons  of  words,  dialogues,  extracts  from  authors, 
and  other  processes  established  by  routine  chiefly 
for  speaking  a  foreign  language,  fail  even  in  this 
object ;  for  imitation,  by  which  alone  this  art  can 
be  acquired,  is  altogether  set  aside.  These  pre- 
liminary exercises,  from  the  importance  often 
attached  to  them,  and  the  time  they  consume, 
sacrifice  the  end  to  the  means,  and  lengthen 
unreasonably  the  study  of  languages.  They 
cannot,  therefore,  enter  into  a  rational  system  of 
teaching. 

Of  all  the  dilatory  means  which  tradition  and 
routine  have  introduced  into  the  teaching  of  Ian- 


ON   ROUTINE.  199 

guages,  grammar  has  perhaps  been  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  their  attainment.  By  a  deplorable 
violation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  the  rule  is  con- 
sidered as  essential,  the  example  as  secondary, 
and  grammar  is  made  the  basis  of  the  study. 

The  art  of  grammar  adds  little  to  the  learner's 
vocabulary,  and  yet  an  extensive  stock  of  words 
is  the  most  indispensable  acquisition  for  good 
speaking  and  good  writing ;  because,  without 
copiousness  of  language,  there  is  no  possibility  of 
suiting  expressions  to  ideas  in  the  diversified  cir- 
cumstances of  intellectual  communication.  It 
does  not  guide  in  the  choice  of  words,  nor  tell 
their  orthography,  pronunciation,  or  accentuation. 
It  affords  no  assistance  in  ascertaining  when  the 
two  languages  differ  in  the  application  of  appar- 
ently corresponding  words,  in  the  use  of  preposi- 
tions, in  the  genders  or  numbers  of  nouns,  or  in 
the  mode  of  supplying  ellipses  and  the  deficien- 
cies of  a  language.  It  does  not  teach  the  pro- 
priety of  metaphors,  the  euphony  of  periods,  the 
idiomatic  forms  of  speech,  the  various  accepta- 
tions of  words,  the  different  shades  of  meaning 
which  characterize  synonymes;  in  fine,  none  of 
those  niceties  of  expression  which  constitute  the 
genius,  force,  and  elegance  of  a  language,  and 


200  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

which  can  be  acquired  only  through  an  extensisre 
and  critical  reading  of  standard  works. 

Grammar,  then,  is  not  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  correctly.  All  that  can  be  said  of  it  is 
that  it  contributes,  within  certain  limits,  to  cor- 
rect speaking  and  writing,  but  is  insufficient,  of 
itself,  to  attain  that  end.  Authors  of  grammars 
who  devote  all  their  time  and  attention  to  the 
rules  of  a  language,  are  rarely  distinguished  either 
as  speakers  or  writers. 

Yoltaire,  who,  like  all  great  writers,  gained 
his  literary  eminence  without  having  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  grammar,  warns  us  against 
the  perusal  of  most  grammars,  and  especially  of 
that  of  Girard,  which  is,  however,  one  of  the  best 
in  the  French  language.  "It  would  serve,"  he 
says,  "  to  corrupt  the  style  of  the  reader."  "  "We 
are  amazed  at  the  weakness  of  the  human  mind," 
says  Count  de  Gebelin,  "when  we  consider  the 
oversights  and  blunders  which  are  committed  by 
the  ablest  grammarians." 

Grammar  assists  so  little  in  freeing  the  ex- 
pression of  thought  from  inaccuracy,  obscurity, 
and  nonsense,  that  a  composition  may  be  strictly 
grammatical,  and  withal  replete  with  incongrui- 
ties of  all  sorts,  bad  spelling,  inappropriate  terms, 


ON   ROUTINE.  201 

vulgarisms,  cacophonies,  amphibologies,  pleo- 
nasms, barbarisms,  unsuitable  figures,  illogical 
deductions.  Every  day  we  hear  the  most  errone- 
ous expressions  used  by  foreigners,  while  they 
strictly  follow  the  rules  of  grammar,  which,  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe,  must  have  chiefly  en- 
gaged their  attention  in  studying  English. 

But,  absurd  as  it  is  to  take  to  the  letter  the 
definition  usually  given  of  grammar,  it  is  more 
absurd  still  to  make  it  the  first  step  in  linguistic 
studies;  since,  as  we  have  shown,  it  affords  no 
aid  toward  understanding  either  the  written  or 
the  spoken  language.  One  might  be  able  to  re- 
peat a  grammar  from  beginning  to  end,  without 
being  a  whit  the  more  capable  of  understanding 
or  speaking  two  words  in  the  language.  Gram- 
mar does  not  impart  the  power  of  speaking  to 
him  who  has  not  the  materials  of  expression. 

Admitting  even  that  it  teaches  to  speak  and 
write  correctly,  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  it 
teaches  to  speak  and  write,  but  only  to  do  so  cor- 
rectly ;  in  other  words,  to  avoid  or  correct  errors 
in  the  expression  of  thought.  A  person  must 
therefore  begin  to  speak  and  write,  before  he  can 
derive  any  advantage  from  rules.  "  The  grammar 
of  a  language,"  says  Sicard,  "  cannot  be  learned 


202  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

before  one  is  able  to  speak  it."  "  To  begin  with 
learning  rules  is  a  gross  error  "  (Condillac).  "  I 
would  fain  have  any  one  name  to  me  that  tongue, 
winch  any  one  can  learn,  or  speak  as  he  should 
do,  by  the  rules  of  grammar  "  (Locke).  "  An  age 
of  theory,  of  pure  theory,  would  not  advance  a 
person  one  step  in  the  knowledge  of  a  language ; 
it  would  not  teach  to  translate  a  phrase "  (Le- 
mare).  "  The  rules  of  grammar  which  are  re- 
sults, demonstrated  for  him  who  already  knows 
the  languages,  and  has  made  them  a  subject  of 
meditation,  cannot,  in  any  way,  be  the  means  of 
knowing  them,  for  him  who  is  not  acquainted 
with  them.  They  are  consequences ;  we  cannot, 
without  doing  violence  to  reason,  present  them  to 
him  as  principles"  (Talleyrand).  "May  the 
child,"  exclaims  Pluche,  "  long  remain  ignorant 
that  there  are  in  the  world  such  things  as  gram- 
mars ! " 

Can  grammar  be  considered  as  a  safe  and  in- 
telligible guide,  when  the  grammarians  themselves 
are  but  indifferent  speakers  and  writers  ?  Their 
definitions  and  rules  are  for  the  most  part  obscure, 
incomplete,  and  erroneous.  Moreover,  the  diver- 
sity of  opinion  which  exists  between  them,  at 
once  shows  the  difficulty  of  the  subject  and  the 


ON  KOUTINE.  203 

absence  of  clear  notions  on  the  theory  of  gram- 
mar. In  the  whole  circle  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
there  is  not  one  in  which  the  definitions  and  clas- 
sifications of  their  different  authors  are  more  dis- 
cordant and  more  uncertain.  The  most  element- 
ary questions  have  not  yet  received  solutions 
which  place  them  in  the  number  of  universally 
admitted  truths.  "Grammatici  certant  et  sub 
judice  lis  est "  (Quintillian). 

Those  who  express  themselves  best  in  their 
own  language  owe  their  superiority  far  more  to 
their  own  reflections  than  to  the  precepts  of  gram- 
marians. There  was  no  methodical  treatise  on 
grammar  at  the  time  when  Shakespeare,  Milton, 
Dryden,  Addison,  Pope,  Johnson,  formed  their 
style  in  writing.  The  same  remark  holds  good 
with  regard  to  Cicero,  Yirgil,  Horace,  to  Moliere, 
Pascal,  Corneille,  La  Fontaine,  Boileau,  Kacine, 
to  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  and  many  other 
celebrated  writers,  who,  so  far  from  having 
learned  any  thing  from  grammarians,  supplied 
them  with  the  materials  from  which  they  inferred 
their  rules. 

One  of  the  greatest  mistakes  arising  from  the 
false  definition  of  grammar,  a  mistake  against 
which  the  public  cannot  be  too  much  on  its  guard, 


204:  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

is  that  committed  by  certain  persons  who,  know- 
ing only  the  grammar  of  a  foreign  language,  set 
np  as  professors  of  the  latter,  under  the  pretence 
that  teaching  the  grammar  is  teaching  the  lan- 
guage itself.  Many  compilers  of  grammars  for 
beginners  put  forth  similar  pretensions,  as  is  ob- 
vious from  their  giving  such  books  the  title  of 
"  Method,"  for  teaching,  etc.  (the  language  of 
which  they  treat). 

It  frequently  happens  that  grammar  is  not 
taught,  but  imposed  as  a  lesson  to  be  learned  by 
rote,  on  young  children  incapable  of  understand- 
ing it.  The  verbatim  repetition  of  the  text  is 
even  sometimes  insisted  upon,  so  that,  under  this 
implicit  injunction  to  attend  to  words  rather  than 
to  sense,  they  seldom  make  an  effort  to  compre- 
hend what  they  learn.  "  Nothing,"  says  Condil- 
lac,  "is  more  useless  than  to  weary  a  child  by 
loading  his  memory  with  the  rules  of  a  language 
which  he  does  not  understand.  Of  what  use  is  it 
for  him  to  know  rules  by  heart,  if  it  is  not  in  his 
power  to  apply  them  % " 

No  set  of  rules  committed  to  memory  will 
either  form  a  profound  scholar,  or,  what  is  in- 
finitely more  important,  create  habits  of  patient 
observation  and  judgment.      A  man  might  be 


ON  ROUTINE.  205 

acquainted  with  the  results  of  many  profound 
inquiries  in  all  the  various  sciences;  he  might 
take  them  on  credit,  and  act  as  if  he  believed 
them  to  be  true ;  but  his  understanding  would  not 
be  one  jot  advanced  above  that  of  an  uninstructed 
workman.  If  the  knowledge  of  all  facts  and 
the  conclusions  of  all  researches  could  be  poured 
into  a  man's  mind  without  his  own  labor,  he 
would  really  be  less  wise  than  he  who  has  been 
properly  trained  to  work  the  rule  of  simple  pro- 
portion. 

It  is  not  the  letter,  but  the  spirit  of  the  rule, 
which  can  be  productive  of  benefit.  In  grammar, 
as  in  morals  and  the  sciences,  it  is  impossible  to 
apply  a  rule  or  to  reason  from  a  principle, 'unless 
we  enter  into  the  spirit  of  it.  The  most  accurate 
rule,  the  wisest  precept,  if  accepted  without  being 
understood  in  all  its  bearings,  can  never  be  ap- 
plied with  perfect  fitness  in  all  possible  circum- 
stances ;  it  will  even  become  a  continual  source 
of  errors. 

Let  us,  then,  hope  that  we  shall  soon  see  ban- 
ished, from  every  school,  "  a  method  which,"  as 
De  Gerando  observes,  "  is  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  nature  of  things,  which  besets  with  abstrac- 
tions the  novitiate  of  a  mind  as  yet  unprepared 


206  THE   STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES. 

for  them,  and  which  enters  upon  the  study  of  a 
language,  by  the  very  notions  which  the  knowl- 
edge of  that  language  alone  can  give." 

All  the  objections  to  grammar  for  beginners 
apply  equally  to  the  written  exercises,  their  usual 
auxiliaries.  They  cannot,  any  more  than  gram- 
mar, facilitate  the  apprenticeship  to  reading,  for 
the  understanding  of  a  written  text  does  not  in 
any  way  imply  the  power  of  writing.  Common 
sense  requires  that  the  learner  should  read  before 
he  writes,  so  as  to  know  what  is  the  best  usage, 
in  order  to  conform  to  it. 

It  is,  besides,  contrary  to  reason  to  force  chil- 
dren to  compose  in  an  idiom  in  which  they  will 
perhaps  never  have  occasion  to  write,  when  they 
make  comparatively  so  few  efforts  to  acquire  this 
same  talent  in  their  own,  which  would  be  so  use- 
ful in  the  course  of  life,  and  so  favorable  to  intel- 
lectual culture. 

The  intimate  relations  between  the  thought 
and  the  style  render  composition  a  highly  intel- 
lectual exercise,  only  when  the  language  is  for  the 
writer  the  direct  and  spontaneous  expression  of 
his  ideas,  and  when  he  is  practically  conversant 
with  its  genius  and  phraseology,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  vernacular.     But  the  learner  who,  trans- 


ON   ROUTINE.  207 

lates  into  a  foreign  idiom  not  yet  familiar  to  him, 
does  not  think  in  it,  and  is  even  unable  to  choose 
the  words  which  would  best  convey  his  ideas,  be- 
cause he  knows  not  their  true  import,  nor  the 
various  shades  of  meaning  which  they  convey; 
his  consideration  of  words  does  not  go  beyond 
their  orthography,  their  concord,  or  their  respec- 
tive places,  according  as  he  is  directed  by  the 
rules,  which  he  has  previously  learned,  or  has 
before  his  eyes — a  purely  mechanical  process,  not 
much  above  a  culinary  operation  from  a  cookery- 
book. 

These  premature  attempts  at  writing,  as  they 
do  not  permit  him  to  exercise  his  imitative  or  im- 
aginative powers,  and  fraught  with  errors  as  they 
must  be,  are  calculated  to  vitiate  rather  than  im- 
prove his  taste.  It  is  utterly  impossible,  as  it  has 
been  erroneously  believed,  that  they  should  culti- 
vate his  understanding,  or  impart  to  him  the 
power  of  discovering  and  appreciating  the  beau- 
ties of  foreign  literary  productions.  They  seem, 
like  most  other  contrivances  of  routine,  to  have 
been  introduced,  in  order  to  afford  the  instructor 
an  opportunity  of  correcting  errors  which  could 
be  avoided  by  processes  more  conformable  to 
reason. 


THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

They  are  condemned  by  all  all  writers  who 
have  treated  of  linguistic  studies.  Rollin,  timid 
as  he  was  in  his  educational  reforms,  says :  "  To 
write  Latin  well,  one  must  know  the  turns,  the 
idioms,  the  rules  of  the  language,  and  have 
at  command  a  considerable  provision  of  words, 
the  force  of  which  is  felt,  and  the  just  appli- 
cation of  which  can  be  made.  !Nbw,  all  this 
can  be  done  only  by  explaining  authors,  who  are 
like  a  living  dictionary  and  a  speaking  grammar, 
in  which  are  learned  by  experience  the  force  and 
the  true  use  of  words  and  phrases,  as  well  as  the 
rules  of  syntax.  I  have  no  hesitation  in  declaring 
that,  in  the  beginning,  written  exercises  in  the 
foreign  tongue  ought  to  be  entirely  excluded,  as 
being  calculated  only  to  torment  young  people  by 
painful  and  useless  labor,  and  to  inspire  them 
with  dislike  to  a  study  which  generally  draws  on 
them  nothing  but  reprimands  and  punishments." 

Unwilling  to  swell  this  volume  with  quota- 
tions, we  will  be  content  with  naming,  among 
those  who  condemn  the  practice,  Roger  Ascham, 
Milton,  Locke,  the  distinguished  scholars  of  Port 
Royal,  Montaigne,  Dumarsais,  Pluche,  Radon v  il- 
liers,  La  Ch&lotais,  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  J.  J. 
Rousseau,  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre,  Guizot. 


ON   ROUTINE.  209 

Some  partisans  of  routine,  unwilling  to  reject 
the  method  of  grammatical  exercises,  although 
aware  of  its  defects,  have  compiled  manuals,  in 
which  they  contrive  every  possible  means  to  facili- 
tate the  observance  of  the  rules  and  spare  young 
people  the  trouble  of  reflecting:  they  give  not 
only  the  foreign  words,  but  their  order ;  they  in- 
dicate the  gender  and  number,  mood  and  tense ; 
they  point  out  when  words  ure  to  be  omitted  or 
supplied.  Learners  mechanically  avail  them- 
selves of  this  assistance  without  inquiring  into 
the  difference  of  the  idiom  between  the  two  lan- 
guages, often  even  without  reading  the  rule  be- 
fore they  write  the  exercise,  and  without  attend- 
ing to  the  idea  to  be  expressed ;  so  that  the  rem- 
edy is  worse  than  the  evil.  Never  have  these 
unconnected  compositions  led  to  the  formation  of 
a  good  style. 

Inappropriate  and  inefficient  as  are  grammati- 
cal exercises  for  acquiring  the  art  of  composition 
in  a  foreign  language,  they  are,  in  absurdity,  far 
surpassed  by  the  practice  of  translating  into  it 
from  a  national  author  at  an  early  period  of  the 
study,  when  the  learner  has  no  rules,  no  model  to 
guide  him ;  when  he  knows  neither  the  different 
acceptations  of  the  foreign  words  nor  the  shades 


210  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

of  difference  between  synonymes;  when  he  cannot 
even  imagine  whether  that  language  admits,  or 
does  not  admit,  of  rendering  literally  the  forms 
of  another ;  whether  it  has  or  has  not  equivalent 
idiomatic  or  figurative  expressions.  It  is  so  pre- 
posterous, that  it  defies  all  argumentation.  Even 
at  an  advanced  period,  it  is  a  most  injudicious 
practice.  To  translate  into  the  native  idiom,  pre- 
sents, as  has  been  seen,  great  obstacles  to  those 
most  conversant  with  it ;  how,  in  the  name  of 
common  sense,  can  it  be  done  in  a  language  with 
which  one  is  not  acquainted  %  It  is  an  absurdity 
of  the  same  kind  as  that  of  reading  aloud  before 
having  heard  the  words. 

The  cause  of  this  anomaly  may  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  foreigners  who  teach  their  own  lan- 
guage, being  at  first  little  versed  in  that  of  their 
pupils,  feel  their  inability  to  translate  into  it,  and 
resort  to  the  opposite  practice.  Their  correction 
of  compositions  in  their  own  language  gives  an 
appearance  of  usefulness  to  their  services  ;  but,  in 
reality,  they  only  delay  the  progress  of  their 
pupils,  in  the  first  three  arts,  without  teaching 
them  the  fourth.  "Whether  from  pride  or  weak- 
ness of  mind,  men  seldom  think  of  leaving 
off  a  false  course  on  which  they  have  entered. 


ON   ROUTINE.  211 

They  fall  into  error  through  ignorance ;  they  re- 
main in  it  from  habit. 

The  time  which  the  unfortunate  victims  of 
routine  spend  at  this  work  in  the  absence  of  the 
instructor,  leaves  them  but  little  leisure  for  read- 
ing ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  correcting  of  the 
tasks  in  class  takes  up  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  master's  time,  which  would  be  much  better 
employed  in  explaining  to  them  the  ancient  clas- 
sics, or  in  enabling  them  to  understand  oral  ex- 
pression in  living  languages.  They  read,  in  the 
intervals  of  their  lessons,  only  as  much,  as  their 
instructor  has  time  to  hear  them  translate  in  class, 
whicli  is  far  from  being  sufficient  for  acquiring  the 
art  of  reading  or  becoming  acquainted  with  all 
the  forms  of  the  written  language,  and  especially 
with  its  orthography. 

Learners,  not  obtaining  from  example  any  as- 
sistance toward  acquiring  this  elementary  depart- 
ment of  composition,  are  made  to  resort  to  special 
exercises,  more  or  less  irrational,  as  they  reject  the 
commands  of  nature.  Among  others,  we  may 
mention  dictation,  a  practice  altogether  inefficient. 
In  Italian  and  Spanish,  for  instance,  the  conformi- 
ty of  the  spelling  with  the  pronunciation  renders 

it  utterly  useless.     So  uniform  is  the  representa- 
10 


212  THE    STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

tive  power  of  the  letters  in  these  languages,  that 
to  pronounce  an  Italian  or  a  Spanish  word  is  to 
spell  it.  In  German,  dictation  is  not  much  more 
useful,  because  the  same  letters  representing  the 
same  sounds  and  articulations,  it  suffices  to  know 
the  power  of  their  alphabetical  characters,  in 
order  to  deduce  the  spelling  of  the  words  from 
their  sounds.  French  orthography,  which  is  in 
frequent  disagreement  with  its  pronunciation, 
should  be  learned  by  a  reference  to  its  orthoepy, 
etymology,  and  syntax,  rather  than  by  dictation. 
As  for  the  English  language,  which  is  rarely 
spelt  as  it  is  pronounced,  its  orthography  is  the 
fruit  of  practice  alone.  He  who  knows  the 
spelling  of  an  English  word  derives  no  benefit 
from  writing  it,  and  he  who  is  not  previously 
acquainted  wTith  it,  will  seldom  be  able  to  spell 
it  from  hearing. 

Dictation,  like  reading  aloud,  is  a  test  of  pro- 
ficiency, not  a  means  of  teaching.  Although, 
however,  it  cannot  prevent  the  commission  of 
errors,  it  affords  the  means  of  detecting  and  cor- 
recting them.  But,  viewed  even  in  this  light, 
dictation  should  be  resorted  to  cautiously;  be- 
cause, for  one  word  that  the  pupil  may  thus 
learn  to  spell,  he  wastes  time  in  writing  many 


ON   ROUTINE.  213 

which  lie  knew  before.  This  is  purchasing  too 
clearly  a  species  of  information  which  can  be 
easily  gained  conjointly  with  higher  departments 
of  composition.  For  those  who  make  reading 
the  basis  of  study,  and  follow  our  suggestions, 
correct  spelling  is  as  necessary  a  consequence  as 
is  pronunciation  in  the  acquisition  of  the  mother- 
tongue.  By  dictation,  the  professor  teaches  noth- 
ing to  his  pupils  that  they  could  not  learn  by 
themselves.  It  is  so  universally  adopted,  only 
because  it  is  easily  available,  demanding,  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  little  trouble,  capacity,  or  in- 
formation. 

Premature  exercises  of  pronunciation,  forced 
in  by  the  priority  given  to  the  art  of  speaking, 
have  a  still  more  pernicious  effect  than  those 
which  relate  to  orthography.  They  are  primarily 
addressed  to  the  eye,  as  they  proceed  from  the 
letters  to  the  sounds ;  whereas,  on  the  contrary, 
a  knowledge  of  the  pronunciation  should  first  be 
gained,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  al- 
phabetical characters  which  represent  them.  It 
is  the  inversion  of  the  order  in  which  the  different 
branches  of  a  lano-imge  should  be  learned  that 
has  given  rise  to  the  practice  of  reading  aloud, 
and  to  all  those  dissertations  on  the  letters  of  the 


214  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

alphabet  which  serve  as  an  introduction  to  nearly 
all  grammars. 

As  an  early  initiation  in  oral  reading,  books 
have  been  contrived,  in  which  the  pronunciation 
of  the  foreign  language  is  assimilated  with  that 
of  the  native,  by  alphabetical  combinations  in 
the  latter.  The  attempt  to  spell  words  in  one 
language  as  they  are  pronounced  in  another, 
must,  in  most  cases,  prove  unsuccessful ;  for  the 
pen  can  neither  represent  new  sounds  to  the  eye, 
nor  mark  the  imperceptible  shades  of  colloquial 
intonation.  Every  language  has  vowel  sounds, 
articulations,  and  an  accentuation  peculiar  to  it- 
self. Of  the  French  vocal  elements,  for  example, 
seven  sounds  and  one  articulation,  are  not  in  the 
English  pronunciation,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be 
represented  by  English  letters.*  Such  contriv- 
ances only  familiarize  the  eye  with  a  defective 
spelling  of  the  foreign  words. 

There  is  nothing  more  common  than  to  make 
beginners  read  aloud  each  phrase  of  the  text 
before  translating  it.  In  Latin,  which  is  pro- 
nounced by  modern  nations  nearly  the  same  as 

*  The  French  sounds  represented  by  <?,  U,  cu,  an,  in,  on,  tin, 
and  the  articulation  of  which  ill  is  the  sign,  do  not  exist  in  the 
English  pronunciation. 


ON   ROUTINE.  215 

tlioir  own  language,  the  previous  reading  lias  no 
inconvenience;  it  is  even  necessary,  in  order  to 
unravel  the  inverted  arrangement  of  its  words, 
and  to  construe  these  conformably  to  the  genius 
of  the  language  into  which  the  translation  is  to  be 
made.  The  case  is  different  as  regards  the  mod- 
ern languages  of  Europe,  in  which  the  words 
often  assume  the  same  order,  but  differ  widely 
in  their  pronunciation.  Without  in  any  way 
helping  to  understand  the  text,  this  mode  of 
proceeding  inevitably  leads  to  a  defective  pro- 
nunciation. 

-  Alternately  pronouncing  and  translating  each 
sentence,  constantly  disjoins  the  subject,  and 
thereby  not  only  lessens  the  interest  that  the  nar- 
rative might  create,  but  also  throws  an  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  making  out  the  sense  from  the  con- 
text. Besides,  a  beginner  cannot  attend  at  the 
same  time  to  the  pronunciation  and  the  construc- 
tion, both  being  new  to  him;  he  necessarily 
neglects  the  one  while  attending  to  the  other. 
Finally,  this  practice  forms  habits  contrary  to 
the  object  most  desirable  in  translating,  the 
power  of  doing  so  at  sight  and  without  prepara- 
tion. 

In  a  class,  reading   aloud   engages  only  one 


216  THE    STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

person  at  a  time,  and  leaves  all  the  others  for  a 
great  part  of  the  time  in  a  state  of  lamentable 
listlessness,  or,  which  is  still  worse,  if  they  listen, 
accustoms  them  to  the  more  or  less  defective  pro- 
nunciation of  those  who  read.  Reciting  and 
correcting  exercises  in  class  are  liable  to  a  similar 
objection :  they  require  the  exclusive  attention  of 
the  master  for  each  pupil  separately. 

When  reading  aloud  is  practised  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  study,  in  the  presence  of  an 
instructor,  careful  to  correct  every  error  of  pro- 
nunciation, these  recur  so  frequently  that  very 
little  time  remains  for  translation,  which,  at  the 
outset,  ought  to  be  the  only  object  of  considera- 
tion. These  difficulties  would  be  only  partially 
obviated  if  the  professor  himself,  as  is  sometimes 
done,  should  pronounce  every  word  or  phrase 
before  the  pupil ;  for  the  ear  cannot,  on  a  first 
hearing,  notice  at  once  all  the  shades  of  difference 
which  mark  the  vocal  elements  in  a  strange  lan- 
guage, and  especially  the  accent  and  quantity; 
these  are  so  delicate  that,  to  be  perceived,  they 
demand  extreme  sensibility  of  the  organ,  culti- 
vated by  long  and  patient  practice  in  hearing. 

With  regard  to  the  art  of  reading  as  an  ac- 
complishment, its  acquisition  is  utterly  impossible 


ON   ROUTINE.  217 

in  a  foreign  language,  so  long  as  a  person  has 
not  become  so  habituated  to  its  pronunciation,  as 
to  have  his  mind  completely  free  to  give  his  at- 
tention exclusively  to  the  author's  thought.  It 
is,  moreover,  of  little  service ;  for  a  person  has 
rarely  occasion  to  read  in  a  foreign  language  to 
his  own  countrymen,  and  still  less  to  foreigners. 
But,  in  one's  own  language,  no  pains  should  be 
spared  in  acquiring  this  accomplishment,  which, 
though  most  useful  and  agreeable,  is  seldom  pos- 
sessed. 

The  adoption  of  these  different  processes  is 
injurious  to  the  teaching  of  languages,  especially 
because  it  favors  the  ignorance  and  incapacity  of 
those  who  resort  to  teaching,  after  having  failed 
in  other  occupations.  The  exercises  of  memory, 
in  which  the  master  acts  a  merely  passive  part, 
are  equally  objectionable.  Teachers  are  apt  to 
resort  exclusively  to  this  faculty  for  various 
branches  of  instruction,  although  there  is  no  need 
of  any  special  exercise  to  call  it  into  activity ;  for 
its  action,  like  that  of  attention,  is  comprised  in 
that  of  the  other  faculties.  It  is  by  no  means 
unusual  to  see  unfortunate  children  poring  over 
vocabularies  or  other  compilations,  forced  to  learn 
by  heart  lists  of  words,  conjugations,  dialogues, 


218  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

passages  of  books,  which  they  never  turn  to  ac- 
count for  the  expression  of  their  thoughts. 

The  study  of  words  as  an  introduction  to  a 
language,  is  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature, 
and  leads  to  no  useful  result.  One  could  read 
two  or  three  volumes  with  interest,  by  means  of 
interpretations  in  juxtaposition,  in  less  time  than 
would  be  consumed  in  painfully  learning  five  or 
six  hundred  words  as  a  preparation  for  reading. 
But  this  point  has  already  been  alluded  to ;  we 
will  now  advert  to  dialogues  and  extracts  as  mne- 
monic lessons.  In  these  the  attention  is  directed 
solely  to  the  words  which  are  associated  in  the 
mind  by  their  contiguity.  By  dint  of  repetition 
they  are  necessarily  recalled  in  their  order  of  suc- 
cession, each  word  suggesting  that  which  follows. 
The  more  frequently  the  lesson  is  repeated  in  the 
act  of  learning  it,  the  easier  is  the  recitation,  the 
more  also  does  the  text  escape  analysis  and  the 
control  of  the  will.  Recitation  is  an  exercise  in 
oratorical  delivery,  not  in  the  expression  of  one's 
own  ideas. 

The  habit  produced  by  the  repetition  of  a 
text  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  mental  opera- 
tion required  for  the  expression  of  thought: 
speaking  is  an  act  of  the  "judgment,  reciting  an 


ON   ROUTINE.  219 

act  of  the  memory.  The  first  consists  in  associa- 
ting words  with  the  ideas  as  these  arise  in  the 
mind;  the  second  in  merely  associating  words 
with  each  other  on  the  principle  of  contiguity. 
Incessant  change  of  words  and  phraseology  char- 
acterizes the  one ;  immutability  of  form  and  order 
is  the  essence  of  the  other.  We  command  the 
former,  we  are  slaves  to  the  latter.  In  speaking, 
the  attention  is  intent  on  ideas ;  in  reciting,  it  is 
intent  on  words  ;  in  the  former  the  words  are  sub- 
ordinate to  the  ideas,  in  the  latter  the  ideas  are 
subordinate  to  the  words,  very  often  they  are  not 
taken  into  consideration  at  all ;  there  is  nothing 
so  common  with  children  as  to  repeat  what  they 
do  not  in  the  least  understand.  "To  know  by 
heart  is  not  knowing,"  said  Montaigne. 

Dialogues,  like  extracts  learned  by  rote,  teach 
to  recite,  not  to  converse.  "Whatever  be  the  num- 
ber with  which  a  learner  has  loaded  his  memory, 
he  is  only  the  tame  repeater  of  another  man's 
ideas ;  he  is  never  called  upon  to  express  his  own, 
and  his  power  of  conversing  is  regulated  by  the 
whim  and  peculiar  notions  of  the  compiler. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  art  of  speaking  depends 
not  so  much  on  the  recollection  of  a  large  number 
of  dialogues  as  on  the  power  of  spontaneously 


220  TIIE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

constructing  sentences  suited  to  the  ever-changing 
circumstances  of  social  intercourse.  Analogy, 
the  power  through  the  instrumentality  of  which 
command  of  expression  is  acquired,  is  therefore 
more  effective  than  mere  recollection  of  phrase- 
ology. 

How  can  it  be  supposed  that  a  dialogue,  for 
example,  between  a  lady  and  her  dress-maker, 
written  most  likely  by  a  man  little  conversant 
with  the  caprices  of  fashion,  or  with  female  attire, 
could  serve  as  a  type  for  all  conversations  between 
ladies  and  their  dress-makers,  despite  the  changes 
of  fashion  and  whatever  be  the  season  of  the 
year,  the  dispositions,  ages,  wants,  taste,  wealth 
of  the  parties,  and  innumerable  other  circum- 
stances. The  victims  of  this  system,  however, 
are  generally  spared  the  trouble  of  testing  the 
usefulness  of  these  dialogues';  they  generally  forget 
them  long  before  they  have  an  opportunity  to  turn 
them  to  account. 

Not  only  are  these  lessons  of  very  little  ser- 
vice, but,  as  they  demand  much  time,  and  are 
very  irksome,  they  can  hardly  fail  to  inspire  aver- 
sion for  study.  They  do  not  even  cultivate  the 
memory  in  any  useful  way,  for  the  faculty  of 
remembering  words  in  a  given  order,  serves  no 


ON  ROUTINE.  221 

practical  purpose,   unless   to   actors  in  learning 
tlieir  parts. 

~No  faculty  can  be  exercised  and  improved 
generally  by  any  particular  process ;  its  cultiva- 
tion in  one  direction  does  not  extend  its  power  in 
another ;  thus  persons,  practised  in  musical  modu- 
lations, have  no  superiority  over  others  in  catch- 
ing the  pronunciation  and  accent  of  foreign  lan- 
guages. If  the  sight  be  exercised  on  colors,  it 
will  not  better  appreciate  forms  or  distances,  and 
if  exercised  on  either  forms  or  distances,  only 
a  similar  partial  improvement  will  be  produced. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  intellectual  faculties.  Their 
development  is  always  in  accordance  with  the 
means  by  which  it  is  attained.  The  person  who 
has  been  much  engaged  in  learning  mere  words 
or  passages  of  books  will  not,  from  that  special 
exercise,  possess  greater  power  in  recollecting 
facts,  localities,  dates,  the  subject-matter  of  a 
book  or  of  a  speech.  In  short,  the  practice  of 
committing  to  memory  words  and  phrases,  gives 
to  this  faculty  nothing  more  than  an  aptitude  for 
parroting  another  man's  words  and  phrases,  and 
such  an  aptitude  will  never  raise  its  possessor 
in  the  scale  of  intellect,  or  enable  him  to  carry 
on  more   successfully  the   affairs  of   life.      The 


222  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

mechanical  memory  of  words  should  not  be 
made  a  substitute  for  the  intellectual  memory  of 
things. 

All  the  time  which  a  boy  spends  in  learning 
by  heart  and  reciting  lessons  is  lost  for  the  exer- 
cise of  his  judgment  and  for  the  practice  of  the 
language.  In  classes  the  great  majority  of  its 
members  remain  unoccupied,  awaiting  their  turn 
to  be  heard.  As  for  the  professor,  what  does  he 
do  ?  He  listens,  he  does  not  teach.  However  ex- 
tensive his  knowledge  may  be,  it  is  a  dead  letter 
to  his  pupils.  He  who,  in  his  teaching,  does  not 
go  beyond  the  books,  is  no  professor. 

The  numerous  tasks  which,  in  the  prevailing 
systems  of  instruction,  young  people  often  have 
to  prepare  for  their  instructor,  allow  them  no 
time  to  practise  reading  in  his  absence,  or  the 
spoken  language  in  his  presence.  They  leave 
school,  for  the  most  part,  without  having  entered 
upon  any  essential  department  of  the  study. 
They  are  given  to  understand  that  their  labor  is 
over  when  they  begin  to  read  aloud,  and  translate 
or  parse  the  foreign  language  with  fluency,  when 
they  have  conjugated  all  the  verbs,  and  repeated 
a  volume  of  dialogues,  when  they  have  learned 
all  the  rules,  and  written  all  the  exercises  of  their 


ON  ROUTINE.  223 

grammar ;  and  jet  nothing  of  all  this  is  the  lan- 
guage, the  practical  language. 

These  sad  results  are  the  more  remarkable  as 
we  every  day  see  young  children  acquire  a  second 
language  abroad  with  a  facility  which  would  put 
to  shame  an  adult  who  was  learning  the  same 
language  in  the  plenitude  of  his  reason,  who, 
having  only  to  collect  signs  to  be  attached  to  the 
ideas  he  possesses,  spends  considerably  more  time 
in  learning  them  than  do  these  children  in  learn- 
ing to  speak  the  language,  although  the  latter 
have  to  acquire  every  thing — the  ideas  as  well  as 
their  signs.  Nothing  shows  more  obviously  the 
fallacy  of  the  methods  pursued. 

The  easiest  and  most  useful  branch,  the  art  of 
reading,  they  seldom  acquire  so  as  to  turn  it  to 
advantage  in  after-life.  Their  study  of  it  does 
not  extend  beyond  the  translation  of  a  few  vol- 
umes or  fragments  of  volumes ;  and,  consequently, 
there  are  very  few  who,  after  leaving  school, 
ever  open  a  book  in  a  living  language,  unable 
as  they  are  to  read  that  language  with  ease  or 
pleasure. 

These  are  the  sad  fruits  of  a  routine  which, 
by  confining  learners  exclusively  to  translation, 
incapacitates  them  from  entering  into  the  spirit 


224:  THE    STUDY    OF   LANGUAGES. 

of  authors,  or  to  appreciate  their  merit,  and  which, 
by  frequently  enforcing  on  them  the  practice  of 
scrap-reading,  leaves  them  lamentably  ignorant 
of  the  foreign  literature. 

The  routine  of  classical  studies  especially  is 
deplorable  in  its  consequences;  it  does  not  con- 
form either  to  the  laws  of  Nature  or  to  the  re- 
quirements of  society,  sets  at  naught  spontaneity, 
curiosity,  imitation,  and  analogy ;  overloads  mem- 
ory to  the  prejudice  of  judgment,  reverses  the 
order  prescribed  by  reason,  in  passing  from  the 
signs  to  the  things  signifie.d,  from  the  rules  of 
grammar  to  the  facts  of  language,  from  the  art 
of  writing  to  the  art  of  reading ;  nor  does  it  fully 
secure  the  intellectual  development  aimed  at  by 
these  studies,  and  keeps  young  people  too  long 
engaged  on  things  of  the  past,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  knowledge  which  the  progress  of  civilization 
has  rendered  indispensable. 

We  do  not  mean  by  these  remarks  to  cast 
censure  on  the  profession  of  teacher.  The  most 
enlightened  among  its  members  lament  the  pres- 
ent state  of  things  as  much  as  we  do,  but  are 
unable  to  offer  a  remedy.  So  strong  is  the  preju- 
dice in  favor  of  the  course  sanctioned  by  time  and 
school-routine,  that  the  head  of  a  private  school, 


ON   ROUTINE.  225 

or  the  professor  who  should  wish  to  introduce  a 
reform  in  this  respect,  would  probably  be  exposed 
to  great  personal  prejudice. 

"  Custom,"  says  Rollin,  "  often  exercises  over 
minds  a  sort  of  tyranny  which  keeps  them  in 
bondage  and  hinders  the  use  of  reason,  which,  in 
these  matters,  is  a  surer  guide  than  example,  how- 
ever authorized  by  time." 

Of  all  the  known  methods  there  is  not  one  in 
strict  conformity  with  the  process  of  nature  or 
which  furnishes  the  means  of  thoroughly  acquir- 
ing a  foreign  language,  in  its  fourfold  applica- 
tion. 

Dumarsais,  Rollin,  Pluche,  Raclonvilliers,  and 
Lemare,  authors  of  special  treatises  on  the  art  of 
teaching  languages,  have  presented  very  judicious 
suggestions  on  the  matter ;  but,  as  they  had  ex- 
clusively in  view  the  study  of  the  dead  languages, 
they  suggested  no  means  of  effecting  the  oral 
exchange  of  ideas.  The  method  of  interlinear 
translations,  advocated  by  some  of  them,  as  well 
as  by  Locke,  however  excellent  and  practical,  can 
lead  only  to  the  understanding  of  the  written  lan- 
guage. 

The  imitation  of  a  model-book,  as  recommend- 
ed by  Jacotot,  certainly  places  the  student  in  the 


22G  THE   STUDY   OF   LANGUAGES. 

right  track ;  but  it  is  a  perversion  of  liis  princi- 
ple, "All  is  in  all,"  to  limit,  as  he  does,  the 
knowledge  of  a  language  to  the  study  of  a  single 
volume,  and  to  force  on  his  pupils  a  defective 
pronunciation,  by  insisting,  as  he  does,  on  their 
committing  this  volume  to  memory  at  the  very 
outset,  when  they  are  utterly  ignorant  of  the 
pronunciation  of  the  foreign  tongue.  This  is  not 
surely  the  way  in  which  Nature  proceeds.  He 
initiates  his  pupils  in  the  art  of  speaking  by  ask- 
ing them  questions  on  the  text  of  this  volume, 
which  they  are  to  answer  by  repeating  the  very 
words  of  the  author.  This  repetition  of  words 
and  phrases,  drawn  exclusively  from  one  text,  is 
assuredly  insufficient.  The  subject-matter  and 
the  phraseology  of  his  model-book,  Telemachus, 
are  also  ill  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  ordinary 
conversation. 

In  the  Ollendorff  system,  practice  justly  comes 
before  theory;  but  the  trivial  phraseology  of 
which  its  lessons  are  made  up,  and  their  recita- 
tion, afford  no  aid  toward  extempore  speaking  or 
the  formation  of  a  good  style,  despite  the  preten- 
tious title  of  his  book :  "  Method  of  learning  to 
speak,  read,  and  write  German  in  six  months." 
This  title  alone  proves  that  Ollendorff  did  not 


ON  EOUTINE.  227 

even  suspect  that  the  art  of  understanding  the 
spoken  language  could  be  taught. 

Robertson's  method,  partly  copied  from  Jaco- 
tot's,  is  not  less  barren  in  results.  Rejecting  the 
progressive  order  prescribed  by  ^Nature,  it  aims, 
from  the  outset,  at  the  four  arts  simultaneously; 
hence  his  premature  lessons  of  pronunciation, 
grammar,  etymology,  parsing,  analytical  and 
philological  disquisitions,  which  constantly  take 
the  attention  away  from  what  is  practically  use- 
ful. The  pupils  have  no  other  subject  of  study, 
in  the  whole  course  of  this  method,  but  a  text 
still  more  restricted  than  that  of  Jacotot;  and, 
far  from  recommending  the  reading  of  good  au- 
thors, Mr.  Robertson  pretends,  contrary  to  com- 
mon sense,  that  the  short  Persian  tale  of  three  or 
four  pages,  on  which  his  lessons  turn,  suffices  for 
all  the  acquirements  of  the  foreign  language. 

In  short,  neither  these  methods,  nor  any  other 
that  has  come  to  our  knowledge,  secure  the  means 
of  understanding  foreigners  when  speaking  their 
own  language,  and  still  less  that  of  acquiring  the 
power  of  thinking  in  that  idiom,  a  power  essential 
to  its  thorough  mastery. 

The  diversity  of  lights  in  which  linguistic  in- 
struction is  viewed,  owing  to  the  absence  of  a 


228  THE   STUDY   OF  LANGUAGES. 

rational  classification,  has  naturally  produced  a 
corresponding  diversity  in  the  mode  of  effecting 
it.  Every  teacher,  in  entering  on  his  profession, 
bewildered  by  all  these  processes,  many  of  which 
are  in  direct  opposition  to  one  another,  has  to 
contrive  a  method  for  himself,  or  he  must  blindly 
follow  the  routine  which  often  has  no  other  recom- 
mendation than  its  antiquity. 

This  appeal  to  our  fathers  in  what  regards 
education  keeps  the  mind  in  bondage,  and  is  an 
obstacle  to  progress :  they  are  our  juniors  in  the 
world.  We  have  our  own  experience  in  addition 
to  theirs,  and  start  in  life  with  greater  advantages ; 
we  consequently  ought  to  know  more,  and  cannot 
make  their  notions  or  opinions  the  standard  of  our 
conduct.  It  is  time  to  reject  the  worn-out  ma- 
chinery of  our  forefathers.  Let  us  apply  to  mind, 
as  we  have  done  to  matter,  new  powers  and  new 
processes.  Let  a  rational  system  of  learning  lan- 
guages bring  men  of  all  nations  into  communion, 
as  steam  has  brought  them  into  contact.* 

*  Wc  refer  the  reader  to  the  work  mentioned  in  the  preface 
for  more  ample  information  on  the  system  here  briefly  sketched, 
and  on  the  processes  which  constitute  its  practical  application. 

T  II  K     END. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


Quackenbos's  Text-Books  on  the  English 
Language. 


"Tho  singular  excellence  of  all  Quackenbos's  school-books  is  well  known  to  the  edu- 
cational community.  They  arc  generally  admitted  to  be  the  best  manuals  on  the  sub- 
jects of  which  they  respectively  treat."'— J.  W.  BULKLEY,  City  Supt.  of  /tic/tools, 
Brooklyn,!?.  Y. 

FIRST  BOOK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  :  16mo,  120  pages. 

AN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  :  12mo,  2S8  pages. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION :  12mo,  182  pages. 

ADVANCED  COURSE  OE  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC  : 

12mo,  450  pages. 

Covering  the  whole  field,  these  books  afford  an  insight  into  the  structure 
of  the  English  language  that  can  be  obtained  from  no  other  source.  The 
Grammars,  by  an  original  system  peculiarly  clear  and  simple,  teach  the 
Analysis  of  our  tongue  both  verbal  and  logical  The  works  on  Composi- 
tion are  equally  thorough  guides  to  its  Synthesis,  embodying  in  a  con- 
densed form  the  substance  of  Blair,  Karnes,  Alison,  Burke,  Campbell,  and 
other  standards,  the  whole  illustrated  with  practical  exercises  in  great 
variety. 

The  pupil  thoroughly  instructed  in  these  books  cannot  fail  to  learn 
how  to  express  himself  with  propriety  and  elegance.  They  work  like  a 
charm  in  the  school-room ;  where  one  is  introduced,  the  others  soon  follow. 


C.  J.  Buckingham,  Pres.  Board  of 
Education,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  says: 
"I  am  very  much  pleased  with  the  gen- 
eral plan  as  well  as  with  the  particular 
arrangement  of  the  Grammar.  It  is  very 
concise,  and  yet  very  comprehensive; 
omitting  nothing  that  is  essential,  nor 
containing  any  thing  superfluous.  The 
definitions  are  very  exact  and  easily 
understood.  Parsing  is  rendered  an 
easy  and  pleasant  task,  if  task  it  can  be 
longer  called.  Punctuation  is  made  very 
plain  and  intelligible.  I  think  this  trea- 
tise is  destined  to  become  a  great  favor- 
ite in  our  public  schools,  used  either  in 
connection  with  Quackenbos's  Lessons 
in  Composition  or  without  them.  Tho 
Series  appears  to  cover  the  entire 
field." 


B.  P.  Morrison,  Princ.  High  School, 
"Weston,  Mass.,  writes:  "Having  for  sev- 
eral years  past  used  the  author's  Khetoric, 
I  was  prepared  to  find  a  good  Grammar. 
The  examination  did  not  disappoint  me. 
It  is  characterized,  like  the  former  work, 
by  admirable  metliod  and  great  clear- 
ness and  precision  of  statement.11 

Rev.  L.  "W.  Hart,  Sector  of  College 
Grammar  School,  Brooklyn:  "Your 
new  Grammar  has  been  very  closely 
examined  in  regard  to  the  plan  and 
general  execution  of  the  work,  and  is 
perfectly  marked  by  tho  same  excel- 
lences which  have  made  your  'First 
Lessons  '  and  your  '  Advanced  Course 1 
my  favorite  text-books  for  some  years. 
It  will  go  into  use,  like  them,  as  my 
text-book  in  English  Grammar.1' 


D.  APPLET  ON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


Advanced    Course    of    Composition     and 
Rhetoric. 

A  Series  of  Practical  Lessons  on  the  Origin,  History,  and  Peculiarities 
of  the  English  Language,  Punctuation,  Taste,  the  Pleasures  of  the 
Imagination,  Figures,  Style  and  its  essential  Properties,  Criticism, 
and  the  various  Departments  of  Prose  and  Poetical  Composition. 
Illustrated  with  Copiou3  Exercises.     By  G.   P.    QUACKENBOSJ 
LL.  D.     12mo,  450  pages. 
This  work  is  an  eminently  clear  and  practical  text-book,  and  embraces 
a  variety  of  important  subjects,  which  have  a  common  connection  and 
mutually  illustrate  each  other ;  but  which  the  pupil  has  heretofore  been 
obliged  to  leave  unlearned,  or  to  search  for  among  a  number  of  different 
volumes.     Claiming  to  give  a  comprehensive  and  practical  view  of  our 
language  in  all  its  relations,  this  "  Advanced  Course  "  views  it  as  a  whole, 
no  less  than  with  reference  to  the  individual  words  composing  it ;  shows 
how  it  compares  with  other  tongues  ;  points  out  its  beauties ;  indicates 
how  they  may  best  be  made  available ;  and,  in  a  word,  teaches  the  stu- 
dent the  most  philosophical  method  of  digesting  his  thoughts,  as  well  as 
the  most  effective  mode  of  expressing  them. 

It  teaches  Rhetoric  not  merely  theoretically,  like  the  old  text-books, 
but  practically,  illustrating  every  point  with  Exercises  to  be  prepared  by 
the  student,  which  at  once  test  his  familiarity  with  the  principles  laid 
down,  and  impress  them  on  his  mind  so  vividly  that  they  can  never  be 
effaced. 

Hon.  A.  Constantine  Barrt,  State  Superintendent  of  the  Common 
Schools  of  Wisconsin,  in  a  Report  to  the  Legislature  of  that  State,  uses 
the  following  strong  language  in  relation  to  QuackeKbos's  works  on  Com- 
position : 

"It  would  be  difficult  to  point  out  in  these  admirable  books  any  thing  that  we  would 
desire  to  have  altered ;  they  meet  our  wants  in  every  respect,  making  no  unreasonable 
draft  on  the  time  or  patience  of  the  teacher,  and  leaving  him  no  excuse  for  neglecting 
to  make  composition  a  regular  study,  even  with  his  younger  classes.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  compare  these  books  with  others  on  the  subject,  for  there  aee  none  that  approach 
them  in  clearness,  comprehensiveness,  excellence  of  arrangement,  and  above  all,  in  direct 
practical  bearing.  Affording  an  insight  into  the  mechanism  of  language,  thoy  ■will 
hardly  fail  to  impart  facility  and  graco  of  expression,  and  to  inspire  a  love  for  the  beauties 
of  literature.''1 

From  Prof.  John  N.  Pbatt,  of  the  University  of  Alabama. 
"I  have  been  using  Quackenbos  on  Composition  and  Khetoric  in  the  instruction  of 
my  classes  in  tho  University,  and  I  am  persuaded  of  its  great  excellence.  The  'First 
Lessons  in  Composition,1  by  the  same  author,  I  regard  as  very  useful  for  beginners.  Of 
these  two  books,  I  can  speak  with  tho  greatest  confidence,  and  I  do  most  ueaetilt 
recommend  tuem  to  all." 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 

Quackenbos's  English  Grammar. 

12mo,  288  pages. 

Brief  and  clear  in  definition,  happy  in  illustration,  full  and  ingenious  in 
its  explanations,  simple  yet  comprehensive,  it  is  believed  that  this  New 
Grammar  will  meet  every  reasonable  want.  Great  care  has  been  taken  to 
adapt  it  to  the  school-room.  The  matter  is  divided  into  lessons,  followed 
in  every  case  by  an  Exercise  which  applies  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  the 
principles  laid  down.  To  perform  these  Exercises,  the  pupil  must  under- 
stand what  he  learns.  There  is  no  possibility  here  of  mere  surface- 
learning. 

This  work  is  not  a  stereotyped  reproduction  of  the  old  Grammars ;  the 
author  has  innovated  sufficiently  to  produce  a  philosophical  system,  never 
changing  for  the  sake  of  change,  but  never  hesitating  to  innovate  where  it 
Avas  essential  to  consistency  or  simplicity.  He  has  classified  words  as  parts 
of  speech  solely  according  to  their  use  in  the  sentence,  thus  doing  away 
with  all  arbitrary  distinctions,  and  greatly  facilitating  the  pupil's  labors. 
There  is  no  avoiding  of  difficulties.  Puzzling  constructions  are  fully 
explained. 

In  the  matter  of  systematic  parsing  and  the  analysis  of  sentences, 
this  work  strikes  a  happy  medium,  giving  to  each  its  proper  share  of 
attention.  Its  system  of  analysis  is  peculiarly  simple  and  natural,  easily 
understood,  unencumbered  with  technical  terms,  and  requiring  no  charts, 
diagrams,  or  elaborate  preparation  on  the  teacher's  part,  to  make  it  avail- 
able. 

The  department  of  False  Syntax  is  thought  to  be  unrivalled  in  com- 
pleteness and  practical  bearing.  Nothing  is  left  to  be  supplied  by  oral 
instruction,  to  the  great  discomfort  of  the  teacher.  Indeed,  this  saving 
of  labor  to  the  teacher  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  work,  and  has  been 
specially  noticed  by  critics. 

The  Philadelphia  North  American,  in  a  cordial  endorsement  of  the 
Grammar,  says :  "  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  difficulties  attending 
the  imparting  a  knowledge  of  English  Grammar  to  the  youthful  mind, 
should  hail  with  delight  a  book  which  will  certainly  relieve  them  of  at 
least  half  their  trouble,  and  make  the  remainder  light." 

Few  books  have  been  so  cordially  received  and  strongly  endorsed  as 
th'13  new  Grammar.  Teachers  are  solicited  to  examine  it  for  them' 
selves. 


D.  APPLETON  <b  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 

Quack enbos's  Standard  Text-Books  : 

AN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  :  12mo,  288  pages. 

FIRST  BOOK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR:  16mo,  120  pages. 

ADVANCED  COURSE  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC: 
12mo,  450  pages. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION:  12rao,  182  pages. 

ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES: 
12mo,  538  pages. 

ELEMENTARY  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  Beauti- 
fully illustratad  with  Engravings  and  Maps.     12mo,  230  pages. 

A  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY:  Just  Revised.     12mo,  450  pages. 

APPLETONS'  ARITHMETICAL  SERIES :  Consisting  of  a  Primary, 
Elementary,  Practical,  Higher,  and  Mental  Arithmetic. 


Benj.  "Wilcox,  A.  M.,  Princ.  Eiver  Falls  Acad.,  Wis.:  "I  have  taught  in  semi, 
naries  in  this  State  and  in  New  York  for  more  than  twenty  years,  and  am  familiar  with 
most  of  the  works  that  have  been  issued  by  different  authors  within  that  period ;  and  I 
consider  Quackenbos's  Text-Books  the  most  unexceptional  in  their  respective  depart- 
ments."— C.  B.  Tillingrhast,  Princ.  of  Academy,  Moosop,  Conn.:  "I  think  Quack - 
enbos's  books  the  nearest  perfection,  of  any  I  have  examined  on  the  various  subjects 
of  which  they  treat." 

Pres.  Savagre,  Female  College,  Millersburg,  Ky. :  "  Mr.  Q.  certainly  possesses  rare 
qualifications  as  an  author  of  school-books.  His  United  States  History  has  no  equal, 
and  his  Ehetoric  is  really  indispensable,'"— Da.sri&  Y.  Shaub,  Pres.  Teachers1  Inst., 
Fogelsville,  Pa. :  "  I  approve  of  all  the  Text-Books  written  by  Mr.  Quackenbos."— Ecv. 
Dr.  Winslow,  N.  T.,  Author  of  "Intellectual  Philosophy:"  "All  the  works  of  this 
excellent  author  are  characterized  by  clearness,  accuracy,  thoroughness,  and  complete- 
ness; also  by  a  gradual  and  continuous  development  of  ulterior  results  from  their  pre- 
viously taught  elements." 

Eev.  Dr.  Rivers,  Pres.  Wesleyan  University:  "I  cordially  approve  of  all  the  Text- 
Books  edited  by  G.  P.  Quackenbos."— W.  B.  McCrate,  Princ.  Acad.,  E.  Sullivan, 
Me. :  "  Quackenbos's  books  need  only  to  be  known  to  be  used  in  all  the  schools  in  tho 
State.  Wherever  they  are  introduced,  they  are  universally  liked" — Jas.  B.  Hue, 
County  Supt.  of  Schools,  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa :  "  Any  thing  that  has  Quackenbos  s 
name  is  sufficient  guarantee  with  mo."— Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  Jan. 
1860:  "Every  thing  we  have  noticed  from  Mr.  Quackenbos  shows  that  the  making  of 
books  of  this  class  is  his  proper  vocation." 


Single  copies  of  the  above  Standard  works  will  be  mailed,  post-paid,  for 
examination,  on  receipt  of  one-half  the  retail  prices.  Liberal  terms  made 
for  introduction.     Address 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

M9tC-551  Broadwtjti  Nine  Y '-■>•/:. 


D.  APPLET  ON  &  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


Bain's  Rhetoric: 

AMERICAN  EDITION,  Revised.     Large  12mo,  343  pages. 

"Tho  work  on  English  Composition  and  Ehetoric  by  Prof.  Bain,  of  the  University 
of  Aberdeen,  seems  to  me  to  combine  largely  the  excellences  of  Blair,  Campbell,  and 
Ywiuuly.  I  am  so  favorably  impressed  with  the  work  that  I  have  recommended  its  use 
in  our  University  as  a  class-book." — Daniel  Bead,  LL.  D.,  Free.  oftJie  State  Univer- 
sity of  Mo-,  and  of  Vie  State  Teachers'  Association. 

"  I  think  Bain's  Manual  of  Ehetoric  the  best  book  I  have  examined  on  the  subject.,, 
— L.  D.  McCabe,  Prof.  Rhetoric  Ohio  Wesleyan  University. 

"It  is  just  the  work  for  the  students  in  our  colleges."— Prof.  Thomas  "W.  Tobet, 
Judson  Fein.  Inst,  Jfarioti,  Ala. 


Dictionary  of  the  English  Language : 

By  Alexander  Reed,  A.  M.     12mo,  5T2  pages. 

This  work,  which  is  designed  for  schools,  has  been  compiled  with 
direct  reference  to  their  wants,  by  a  teacher  of  experience,  judgment, 
and  scholarship.  It  contains,  in  small  compass  and  the  most  convenient 
form,  the  Pronunciation  and  Definitions  of  all  English  words  authorized 
by  good  usage ;  a  full  Vocabulary  of  Foreign  Roots ;  an  accented  list 
of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture  Proper  Names  ;  and  an  Appendix,  show- 
ing the  pronunciation  of  nearly  three  thousand  of  the  most  important 
Geographical  Names.  It  is  philosophical  in  its  arrangement,  grouping 
derivatives  under  their  primitives,  and  gives  the  root  of  every  word  in 
the  language,  thus  affording  a  clear  insight  into  comparative  philology. 

Either  as  a  work  of  reference,  or  a  text-book  for  daily  study,  this 
Dictionary  will  be  found  to  possess  important  advantages  over  all  others. 
Some  of  our  best  scholars  commend  it  in  the  strongest  terms :  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Rev.  Dr.  Henry,  late  of  New  York  University ; 
D.  M.  Reese,  formerly  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  New  York ;  and  the 
late  Bishop  Wainwright.  Prof.  Frost,  of  Philadelphia,  pronounces  the 
plan  excellent.  Rev.  M.  P.  Parks,  late  Prof.  U.  S.  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point,  says :  "  I  consider  it  superior  to  any  of  the  School  Dictiona- 
ries with  which  I  am  acquainted." 


D.  APPLETON  Jc   CO:  8  PUBLICATIONS. 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


Hand-Book  of  the  English  Language. 

Bj  G.  It.  Latham  M.D.;  F.R.S.     12mo,  398  pages. 

The  ethnological  relations  of  the  English  Language,  its  history  and  ana 
ljms,  its  spelling  and  pronunciation,  etymology  and  syntax,  are  here  treated 
with  a  completeness,  learning,  and  grasp  of  intellect,  that  will  be  vainlj 
sought  elsewhere.  The  elements  of  our  tongue,  the  successive  changes  bv 
which  it  has  been  modified,  the  origin  of  its  peculiar  expressions,  and  other 
subjects  of  like  importance  and  interest,  receive  due  attention  of  the  author, 
who  ranks  among  the  most  accomplished  scholars  of  England.  Whether  for 
private  study,  or  as  a  manual  for  college  and  high-school  classes,  Dr.  Latham's 
Hand-Book  will  be  found  one  of  the  most  useful  works  extant  in  the  depart, 
ment  of  belles-lettres. 

Graham's  English  Synonymes, 

Classified  and  explained ;  with  practical  exercises,  designed  for  schools 
and  private  tuition ;  with  an  introduction  and  illustrative  authorities. 
By  Henry  Reed,  LL.D.     12mo,  344  pages. 

This  treatise  is  intended  to  teach  the  right  use  of  words.  It  explains  the 
principal  synonymes  of  the  language,  classified  and  arranged  in  paire,  and 
illustrates  their  use  at  different  eras  with  passages  from  Shakespeare,  Milton, 
and  Wordsworth.  Exercises  are  appended,  which  require  the  pupil  to  fill 
blanks  by  the  insertion  of  the  words  compared,  selecting  in  each  case  the 
one  that  is  adapted  to  the  context  Thus  practically  impressed  on  the  pupil'* 
mind,  their  distinctive  meanings  will  not  soon  be  forgotten. 

The  attention  of  teachers  is  particularly  invited  to  this  work,  as  one  of 
the  most  useful  that  can  be  found  for  imparting  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
our  tongue.  Besides  teaching  the  student  how  to  avoid  common  inaccu- 
racies of  expression,  and  training  him  to  that  precision  which  is  essential  to 
a  good  style,  it  will  be  found  highly  serviceable  in  disciplining  his  mind  In 
accustoming  it  to  a  critical  appreciation  of  nice  distinctions.  Wherever  i< 
has  been  introduced  into  academic  or  collegiate  institutions,  it  has  awakened 
erent  interest  in  the  study  of  words,  and  proved  a  valuable  auxiliary  V 
courses  of  grammar  and  rhetoric. 


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